英语专业本科学习

《语言学教程》网络版

The website contains materials to facilitate the study of Linguistics: A Course Book, 3rd edition, published by Peking University Press, 2006. It is a newly revised edition of the widely welcomed textbook in linguistics, with Professor Hu Zhuanglin as Editor-in-chief. We are continuously adding materials to this site and hope it will become a helpful resource for the study of the book. Enjoy your study!

《语言学教程》网络版

http://linguistics.bjfu.edu.cn/

 

怎样在PPT中输入英语的音标

有一个非常简单办法可以解决这个问题。如果你的计算机中装有金山词霸的话，在把英语翻译成中文时，你会发现屏幕上显示出了用国际音标标注的英文单词的发音音标，这表明计算机在安装了金山词霸后，一定在其内部安装了含有英语音标的字库。这个字库文件就在Windows文件夹下的字体文件夹Fonts中，其文件名是ksphonet.ttf，字体名是kingsoft phonetic。

进入中文word，需要输入音标时，可在“插入”菜单下选择“符号”，在“符号”选项卡下“字体”下拉菜单中选择“kingsoft phonetic plain”，这是你会看到国际音标中的符号出现在屏幕上，选择你所需要的音标双击之即插入到文章中。

如果你的计算机中没有安装金山词霸，那也没关系，你只要到装有金山词霸的机器上（或光盘中）把含有音标的字体文件ksphonet.ttf复制到你的计算机即可。方法是：在有金山词霸的计算机上找到文件夹windowsfonts，将其中的名为ksphonet.ttf的字体文件有鼠标拖放复制到A盘中（注意此时用鼠标右键采用发送到A盘的方法进行复制是无效的），然后再在你的计算机上把它拖放复制到windowsfonts文件夹中就行了。

现代语言学之我见【转】

语言学作为一门独立的学科来研究还是人类文化历史新近发展的产物。在它刚刚出现时，对于语言学到底算不算科学曾经有很大的争论。但是现在这种争论已经渐渐消失了，语言学在科学领域已经建立了牢固的地位。在中国，语言的学习已经有很长的历史了，但是现代语言学的研究却还需要经历很长时间才能赶超世界水平。

　　简述所学各章

　　1、绪论：（linguistics and language）什么是语言学，什么是语言？

　　2、音位学（phonology）：就音位基本概念，音位的区别特征，音位变体，音位分布、对立，超音段音位等作了介绍。

　　3、形态学（morphology）：研究单词的内部结构以及构词规则

　　4、句法学（syntax）：句法学是一门关于自然语言的句子结构的学问，是普通语言学的核心内容之一。本讲座含语言的规则系统，句子结构，语法关系，组合规则与移位规则和普通语法等六部分，对句法体系，句子语法性和句法心理现实性，句子成分和基本类型，句子的线性与层次性等作了说明。

　　5、语义学（semantics）：就语义的定义，研究目标，语义理论的形式化和应用，语义学的历史发展，词汇语义学及句子语义学展开介绍。

　　6、语用学（pragmatics）：就语用学的起源及定义，语用学和语义学的比较，语境的理解，及语用研究的重要原则等展开讲解。

　　7、历史语言学（historical linguistics）：语言的变化。研究语言变化的目的和意义、语言变化的本质、英语的历史发展、语系和语言变化的原因等五部分。

　　8、社会语言学（sociolinguistics）：社会语境中的语言。语言变异与语用情景、方言及方言使用的社会功能、双言与双语现象、少数民族方言、社会方言等五部分。

　　9、心理语言学（psycholinguistics）：学习语言与心脑的关系。包括语言的生理基础、语言侧化、语言中枢、失语症研究、语言习得的关键期和语言与思维的关系等六部分。

　　10、语言习得（language acquisition）：人类语言能力的获得机器发展的过程。

　　一、绪论

　　语言学的定义

　　语言学的研究范畴

　　几对基本概念

　　语言的定义

　　语言的甄别特征

　　What is linguistics？ 什么是语言学？

　　Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. It studies not any particular language, but languages in general. 语言学是对语言科学地进行研究的学科。语言学所要研究的不是某一种特定的语言，而是人类所有语言的特性。The scope of linguistics 语言学研究的范畴

　　Phonetics语音学Phonology音系学Morphology形态学Syntax句法学Semantics语义学Pragmatics语用学Sociolinguistics社会语言学Psycholinguistics心理语言学Applied linguistics应用语言学Prescriptive vs. descriptive 规定性与描述性

　　Descriptive：a linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use.

　　Prescriptive: it aims lay down rules for "correct" behavior.

　　Modern linguistics is descriptive; its investigations are based on authentic, and mainly spoken data.

　　Traditional grammar is prescriptive; it is based on "high" written language

　　Synchronic vs. diachronic 共时性与历史性

　　The description of a language at some point in time is a synchronic study

　　The description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study

　　In modern linguistics, synchronic study seems to enjoy priority over diachronic study

　　Speech and writing 口头语与书面语

　　Speech enjoys priority over writing in modern linguistics study for the following reasons:

　　（1） speech precedes writing in terms of evolution

　　（2） a large amount of communication is carried out in speech tan in writing

　　（3） speech is the form in which infants acquire their native language

　　Language and parole 语言与言语

　　Language refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community

　　Parole refers to the realization of language in actual use

　　Competence and performance 能力与运用

　　Chomsky defines competence as the ideal users' knowledge of the rules of his language

　　Performance: the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication

　　What is language？ 什么是语言？

　　Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication

　　Characteristics of language: 语言的特性

　　Language is a rule-governed system

　　Language is basically vocal

　　Language is arbitrary （the fact different languages have different words for the same object is a good illustration of the arbitrary nature of language. This conventional nature of language is well illustrated by a famous quotation from Shakespeare's play "Romeo and Juliet": "A rose by any other name would smell as sweet."）

　　Language is used for human communication

　　Design features of language 语言的甄别特征

　　American linguist Charles Hockett specified 12 design features:

　　1） arbitrariness 武断性

　　2） productivity 创造性

　　3） duality 二重性

　　4） displacement移位性

　　5） cultural transmission 文化传递性

　　二、音系学

　　语言的声音媒介

　　什么是语音学

　　发音器官

　　音标……宽式和严式标音法

　　英语语音的分类

　　音系学和语音学

　　语音、音位、音位变体

　　音位对立、互补分部、最小对立

　　几条音系规则

　　超切分特征

　　Two major media of communication: speech and writing

　　The limited range of sounds which are meaningful in human communication and are of interest to linguistic studies are the phonic medium of language. 用于人类语言交际的声音称为语音，这些数目有限的一组语音构成了语言的声音媒介。Phonetics语音学: is defined as the study of the phonic medium of language; it is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world's language.

　　Three branches of phonetics : articulatory phonetics 发音语音学（most highly developed）, auditory phonetics 听觉语音学and acoustic phonetics 声学语音学

　　Organs of speech 发音器官

　　The articulatory apparatus of a human being are contained in three important areas or cavities:

　　The pharyngeal cavity咽腔——the throat

　　The oral cavity口腔——the mouth

　　The nasal cavity 鼻腔——the nose

　　Vibration of the vocal cords （声带） results in a quality of speech sounds called "voicing" 浊音，which is a feature of all vowels 元音 and some consonants 辅音。单词补充：

　　01） velum: The soft palate. 软腭

　　02） uvula: A small, conical, fleshy mass of tissue suspended from the center of the soft palate. 小舌，悬雍垂悬垂在软腭中央的小的圆锥状肉块

　　03） larynx: n. 喉

　　04） vocal cord: 声带

　　05） membrane: n. A thin, pliable layer of tissue covering surfaces or separating or connecting regions, structures, or organs of an animal or a plant. 膜薄而柔软的组织层，覆盖在表面或分割连接各种区域、结构或动植物器官

　　06） the soft palate: 软腭

　　07） the hard palate: 硬腭

　　08） the teeth ridge: 齿龈

　　09） alveolus: A tooth socket in the jawbone 牙槽颚骨处的牙床

　　10） the teeth: 牙齿

　　11） the lips: 上下唇

　　12） blade of tongue: 舌面

　　13） back of tongue: 舌根

　　14） pharyngeal cavity: 咽腔

　　15） nasal cavity: 鼻腔

　　16） velar: Articulated with the back of the tongue touching or near the soft palate, as （g） in good and （k） in cup.软腭音的用舌头后部挂触或靠近软腭清楚地发音的，如在 good中的（g）以及在 cup中的（k）

　　17） the tip of the tongue: 舌尖

　　18） the upper front teeth: 上齿

　　19） the roof of the mouth: 上颚

　　20） the lower lip: 下唇International Phonetic Alphabet （IPA）

　　The vowels （monophthongs and diphthongs） 元音（单元音&双元音）

　　The constants 辅音

　　Broad transcription: transcription with letter-symbols only. （in dictionaries and teaching textbooks）

　　用一个符号来表示一个语音的标音方式叫做宽式标音法，这种音标法常见于词典和教科书。

　　Narrow transcription: the transcription with diacritics.

　　但实际上， 同一语音在不通的语音环境中的发音不尽相同， 比如Pit和spit中的/P/音发音就不一样。

　　在宽式标音的基础上， 再用变音符号表示同一语音在不同的语音环境下不同发音的标音法叫做窄式标音法。

　　Classification of English speech sounds

　　英语语音的分类

　　The basic difference between a vowel and a constant is that in the pronunciation of the former the air that comes from the lungs meets with no obstruction of any kind in the throat, the nose, or the mouth, while in that of the latter it is obstructed in one way or another.

　　Classification of English constants

　　英语辅音分类

　　此主题相关图片如下： Classification of English vowels

　　:the position of the tongue in the mouth舌位高低

　　:the openness of the mouth,口的张开程度

　　:the shape of the lips园唇与否

　　:length of the vowels元音的长度此主题相关图片如下： Phonology 音系学

　　Phonology and phonetics

　　音系学和语音学

　　Phonetics is of a general nature; it is interested in all the speech sounds used in all human languages.

　　语音学研究的是人类所有语言的语音，旨在对语音进行描述和分类。

　　Phonology is interested in the system of sounds of a particular language; it aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.

　　音系学研究的重点是特定语言的语音体系，语音表达意义作用。

　　Phone，phoneme and allophone

　　语音，音位，音位变体Phones, which can be simply defined as the speech sounds we use when speaking a language.

　　语音是语音学研究的单位， 是一个个具体的声音。

　　Phonology is concerned with the speech sounds which distinguish meaning.

　　音位是音系学研究的单位，是抽象的概念， 每一个音位是一组语音特征的集合体，音位具有区别意义的作用。

　　The different which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the allophones of that phoneme.

　　音位变体是一个音位在特定的语音环境力的具体体现， 同一音位在不同语音环境里体现为不同的变体，也就是语音。Phonemic contrast, complementary distribution, and minimal pair

　　音位对立，互补分布，最小对立对

　　rope and robe that /P/ and /b/ can occur in the same environments and they distinguish meaning; therefore they are in phonemic contrast.

　　可以出现在不同语音组合中的同一为止， 产生意义差别。

　　/P/ and /Ph/ these two allophones of the same phoneme are said to be in complementary distribution.

　　When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings, the two words are said to form a minimal pair. [pen] and [ben]

　　最小对立对指出现在同一位置上的一个音之外其余都相同的两个语音组合。Some rules in phonology几条音系规则

　　Sequential rules 序列规则 ：blik, klib , bilk, kilb is possible. But lbki, ilbk, bkil , ilkb not possible.

　　Assimilation rules 同化规则

　　Deletion rule 省略规则

　　Sign, design, there is no {g} sound

　　Signature, designation the {g} is pronounced.

　　Delete a [g] when it occurs before a final nasal constant

　　Suprasegmental features—— stress, tone, intonation

　　超切分特征――重音， 声调，语调

　　the phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments are called suprasegmental features;

　　超切分特征指切分即单音层面以上的音系特征。

　　三、 MORPHOLOGY 形态学 请结合《词汇学中的构词法》进行学习。

　　语素：语言最小的意义单位

　　语素的类型

　　复合词的类型

　　复合词的特征Morphology is a branch of grammar which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed. It is divided into two sub-branches: inflectional morphology and lexical or derivational morphology.

　　形态学研究单词的内部结构以及构词规则， 有屈折形态学和词汇形态学两大分支。Morpheme:the smallest meaningful unit of language.

　　语素：语言最小的意义单位。Free Morpheme: A free morpheme is one that can stand by itself. （independent）

　　自由语素可以作为单词独立使用。Bound Morpheme: A bound morpheme is one that cannot stand by itself.

　　粘着语素必须和其他语素结合成单词

　　Bound Morpheme includes two types: （1） root （2）Affix（词缀）

　　1）Inflectional affixes （屈折词缀）（inflectional morphemes）:

　　affixes attached to the end of words to indicate grammatical relationships are inflectional

　　2）Derivational affixes（派生词缀） A） prefix: A prefix comes before words. B）suffix

　　An adjective suffix（形容词后缀） that is added to the stem, whatever classis belongs to , the result will be an adjective.

　　free=free root（自由词根）Morpheme（词素）

　　Bound root prefix

　　bound derivational

　　affix suffix

　　inflectionalRoot and stem（词根和词干）

　　1） Root 2） Stem

　　The differences between root and stem:

　　A root is the basic form of a word which cannot be further analyzed without total loss of identity.

　　A stem is the surplus part after the cutting of inflectional morpheme in a word with inflectional morphemes,can be further analyzed, it sometimes could be a root.

　　Individualistic Undesirables

　　Individualist （stem） undesirable （stem）

　　Individual （stem） desirable （stem）

　　dividual （stem） desire （root, stem）

　　divide（root, stem）Affixation词缀法（Derivation派生法）：adding word-formation or derivational affixes to stem.

　　Prefixation前缀@：It's the formation of new words by adding a prefixes to stems.

　　1）'表示否定'nagative prefixes: un-,non,in-,dis,a- etc.

　　2）''reversative or privative prefixes: un-,de-dis etc.

　　3）'表示贬义'pejorative prefixes: mis-, mal-, pseudo- etc.

　　4）'表示程度'degree or size prefixes: arch-, super-,out-,sub-,over-,under-,hyper-,ultra-,mini- etc.

　　5）'表示方向、态度'orientation & attitude prefixes:counter-,contra-,anti-,pro- etc.

　　6）locative prefixes:super-,sub-,inter-,trans- etc.

　　7）'表示时间、次序'time and order prefixes:fore-,pre-,post-,ex-,re- etc.

　　8）'表示数量'number prefixes:uni-/mono-,bi-/di-,tri-,multi-/poly- etc.

　　9）'混杂'miscellaneous prefixes：auto-, neo-, pan-, vice-

　　Suffixation后缀@: It's the formation of a new word by adding suffixes to stems.

　　1）noun suffixes 2）adjective suffixes 3）Adverb suffixes 4）verb suffixesCompounding复合法 （also called composition）

　　Compounding: is the formation of new words by joining two or more stems

　　Formation of compounds

　　Noun + noun（名词＋名词） ――― handbook, sunshine

　　Adjective + noun（形容词＋名词）―――highway, deadline

　　Adjective + noun + -ed（形容词＋名词＋ed）―――white-haired, red-eyed

　　Verb + noun（动词＋名词）―――driveway, breakwater（挡水板）

　　Adverb + noun（副词＋名词）―――downtown, overburden

　　Noun + verb（名词＋动词）―――toothpick, snowfall

　　Verb + adverb（动词＋副词）―――follow-up, kick-off

　　Noun + adjective（名词＋形容词）―――world-famous, lifelong

　　-ing form + noun（ing+名词）―――baking power, dining-room

　　other forms（其他）―――go-between, father-in-lawFeatures of compounds复合词的特征

　　1.Orthographically书写特征

　　（Compounds are written in three ways: solid（airmail） hyphenated（air-conditioning） open（air force, air raid）

　　2.Syntactically句法特征（复合词的词性一般取决于复合词最后一个成分的词性）

　　3.Semantically语义特征（复合词的意义具有习语性质，许多复合词的意义都不是其构成成分意义和总和）

　　4.Phonetically语音特征（复合词的单词重音落在第一个构成成分上）

　　四、句法学

　　句子的构成

　　句子的类型

　　句子的线性排列与层次结构

　　词类

　　词组类

　　短语结构规则

　　短语结构 规则的循环性

　　X标杆理论

　　名词词组移位与WH移位

　　其他类型的移位

　　深层结构与表层结构

　　移动a规则

　　普遍语法原则

　　普遍语法参数

　　Syntax is a subfield of linguistics that studies the sentence structure of language.

　　As a major component of grammar, syntax consists of a set of abstract rules that allow words to be combined with other words to form grammatical sentences.

　　句法是一个由一套数量有限的抽象规则组成的系统。

　　Normally a sentence consists of at least a subject and its predicate which contains a finite verb or a verb phrase.

　　句子通常由主语和谓语两大部分构成。 谓语通常由限定动词或动词词组构成。

　　The referring expression is grammatically called subject. 主语是指句子中所被指称的对象。Types of sentences句子的类型

　　The simple sentence: consists of a single clause which contains a subject and a predicate and stands alone as its own sentence.简单句含一个主语和一个谓语的独立句子

　　The coordinate sentence: contains two clauses joined by a linking word called coordinating conjunction.并列句含由连接词串联起来的两个句子成分

　　The complex sentence: contains two, or more, clauses, one of which is incorporated into the other.

　　The two clauses in a complex sentence hold unequal status, one subordinating the other.复合句由两个或两个以上的子句组成， 其中之一为主要子句， 其余为从属子句。The liner and hierarchical structure of sentences 句子的线性排列与层次结构

　　The liner word order of a sentence: when a sentence is uttered or written down, the words of the sentence are produced one after another in sequence.句子的线性排列， 句子无论就其口头或书面表现形式看， 所含的次都按线性次序排列。（表面上的排列）The hierarchical structure of a sentence：sentences are organized with words of the same syntactic category, such as noun phrase（NP）,or verb phrase （VP）, grouped together.

　　句子的结构是一种由名词词组和动词词组等句法成分单位构成的层次性结构。 Tree diagrams of sentence structure

　　S NP VP

　　V S

　　NP VP

　　V NP

　　John suggested （that）Mary take the linguistics class

　　The points at which the tree branches at various levels are called branching nodes.（分节点）Syntactic categories 句法类型

　　Words and phrases are organized according to the syntactic categories they belong to

　　Lexical categories 词类

　　Major Lexical Categories主要词类

　　Noun（N） Verb（V）Adjective（Adj）Adverb（Adv） 名词、动词、形容词、副词

　　Minor Lexical Categories

　　Determiner（Det）Auxiliary（Aux）Preposition（Prep）Pronoun（Pron）Conjunction（Conj）Interjection（Int）限定词、助动词、介词、代名词、连接词、感叹词Phrasal categories词组类

　　Noun phrase （NP）Verb phrase （VP）Prepositional phrase（PP）Adjective phrase（AP）

　　名词短语、动词短语、介词短语、形容词短语Grammatical relations 语法关系

　　Our linguistic knowledge includes an awareness of a distinction between the structural and logical functional relations of constituents called grammatical relations.

　　语法关系是指句子中名词词组与动词的关系， 其中涉及到主语和宾语的结构性和逻辑性。

　　The structural subject and the structural object结构主语与结构宾语

　　The logic subject （the doer of the action） and the logical object （the recipient of the action）

　　逻辑主语（行动的执行者）与逻辑宾语（行动的接受者）Combinational rules 组合规则

　　Phrase structure rules（rewrite rule）短语结构规则

　　短语结构规则是一组句法重写规则。

　　NP-Det N （a/the man）

　　NP——Det Adj N PP S（the tall man with glasses that I met）

　　The recursiveness of Phrase structure rules 短语结构规则的循环性

　　These rules can generate an infinite number of sentences, and sentence with infinite length, due to their recursive properties.根据短语结构规则， 短语和句子可以无限循环地组合起来。

　　X-bar theory X标杆理论

　　（X标杆理论是将各种短语结构规则高度抽象地综合成单一的X标杆规则的理论。）一定要结合书本！Syntactic movement and movement rules

　　移位规则

　　NP-movement and WH-movement

　　名词词组移位和WH移位

　　五、语义学

　　什么是语义学

　　命名论

　　意念论

　　语境论

　　行为主义论

　　意义和所指

　　主要的意义关系

　　句子间的意义的关系

　　成分分析

　　述谓结构分析

　　semantics语义学

　　semantics can be simply defined as the study of meaning 对语义的研究

　　（In our discussion, we will limit ourselves to the study of meaning from a linguistic point of view）本章将只限于讨论语言学家对语义的研究Some views concerning the study of meaning 语义研究的几种主要理论

　　The naming theory: the words used in a language are taken to be labels of the objects they stand for. 命名论是最原始的语义理论， 该理论把词看做是该词所指事务的名称或标记。 （想一想缺陷在哪里？）

　　The conceptualist view: that there is no direct link between a linguistic form and what it refers；rather , in the interpretation of meaning they are linked through mediation of concepts in the mind.意念论人为词汇和该词汇所指的事物之间的关系不是直接的， 而是间接的， 其中介是存在于人的头脑的意念,词汇通过意念来指称事物， 意念便是词汇的意义。

　　Contextualism : is based on the presumption that one can derive meaning from or reduce to observable contexts. Two kinds of context are recognized: the situational context and the linguistic context.

　　语境论人为语言的意义离不开使用语言的语境， 语义不是抽象的， 它存在于语境之中， 它来自语境取决于语境。

　　举例：the seal could not be found. The zoo keeper became worried. （seal:海象）

　　the seal could not be found. The king became worried. （seal:印章）Behaviorism: behaviorists attempted to define the meaning of a language form as the "situation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer." This theory, somewhat close to contextualism, is linked with psychological interest.（语义的行为主义和语义的语境有相似之处， 它也把语义放到语境中去研究， 但它更注重人的心理活动，人为语言的意义在于语言使用者在交际过程中对所听到话语的反应。

　　lexical meaning 词汇意义

　　sense and reference

　　Sense is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form.

　　意义是词汇内在的， 抽象的游离于语境之外的意义

　　Reference means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.

　　所指是词汇在特定的语境中所指称的具体事物。major sense relation主要的意义关系 （请结合《词汇学》学习）

　　Synonymy同义关系

　　Synonymy refers to the sameness or close similarity of meaning. Words that are close in meaning are called synonyms.

　　Dialectal synonyms: autumn （BE）, fall （AmE）

　　Stylistic synonyms: start/begin

　　Collocational synonyms: accuse…of/charge…with/rebuke……for

　　Semantically different synonyms: amaze/astound/surprisePolysemy多义关系

　　Polysemy: the same one word may have more than one meaning

　　Homonymy同形异义

　　When two words are identical in sound, they are homophones.同音字 （night/knight）

　　When two words are identical in spelling, they are homographs. 同形异义字 （n. tear/ v. tear）Hyponymy上下义

　　Hyponymy refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word.

　　Superordinate（上位）：flower

　　Hyponyms: rose, tulip, lily…Antonymy反义

　　The term antonymy is used for oppositeness of meaning; words that are opposite in meaning are antonyms.

　　Gradable antonyms:cool/warm/lukewarm

　　Complementary antonyms：male/female

　　Relational opposites: teacher/pupil, doctor/patientSense relations between sentences 句子间的语义关系

　　X is synonymous with Y. 同义关系

　　Eg：X：He was a bachelor all his life.

　　Y: He never married all his life.

　　X is inconsistent with Y. 矛盾关系

　　Eg：X：He is married.

　　Y: He is a bachelor

　　X entails Y. （Y is an entailment of X） 蕴涵关系 Y>X

　　Entailment is a relation of inclusion. If X entails Y, the meaning of X is included in Y.

　　蕴涵是包含关系， 如果X继承Y， 则意味着Y包含X的意义。

　　Eg：X: He likes swimming.

　　Y: He likes sports

　　X presupposes Y. （Y is a prerequisite of X）预设关系

　　Eg：X: His bike needs repairing.

　　Y: He has a bike

　　X is a contradiction

　　X is semantically anomalous

　　Analysis of meaning 意义分析

　　componential analysis——a way to analyze lexical meaning成分分析

　　Componential analysis is a way proposed by the structural semanticists to analyze word meaning. The approach is based upon the belief that the meaning of a word can be dissected into meaning components, called semantic features.

　　成分分析法是以分析词汇抽象意义的一种方法。它把词汇分析为一个个具有区别作用的语义特征，根据词汇是否包含这些特征来研究、区分词汇意义。

　　Eg:"man"——+HUMAN,+ADULT,+ANIMATE,+MALEpredication analysis ——a way to analyze sentence meaning述谓结构分析

　　A predication consists of argument（s） and predicate.谓述结构由论元与谓词组成

　　论元：句子中的出现的担任成分意义的名词。

　　Two-place predication （containing two arguments）

　　One-place predication （containing one argument）

　　No-place predication （containing no argument）

　　Eg：The man sells ice-cream-two-place predication MAN, ICE-CREAM（SELL）

　　It is snowing-no-place predication （SNOW） 注:这里的it不能看做是论元。

　　The tree grows well——one-place predication TREE（GROW）

　　第六章 语用学

　　第一节 什么是语用学

　　（1） 定义

　　（2） 语用学和语义学

　　（3） 语境

　　（4） 句子意义和话语意义

　　第二节 言语行为理论

　　第三节 会话原则

　　Pragmatics 语用学

　　Pragmatics studies how meaning is conveyed in the process of communication.

　　对语用学可以作多种不同的定义， 但关键是要认识到语用学本质上是一种意义研究， 是一种将语言置于使用的语境中去的意义研究。

　　Pragmatics vs. semantics 语用学与语义学

　　The basic difference between pragmatics and traditional semantics is that pragmatics considers meaning in context and traditionally semantics studies meaning in isolation from the context of use.

　　语用学和语义学两者都是对意义的研究，它们根本的区别在于语义学研究的语言的抽象意义， 语用学研究的是交际过程中语言意义的表达和理解。

　　Context语境

　　Context is regarded as constituted by all kinds of knowledge assumed to be shared by the speaker and the hearer.语境可以理解为交际双方共有的知识。

　　Sentence meaning vs. utterance meaning 句子意义和话语意义

　　Utterance-meaning is based on sentence-meaning; the former is concrete and context-dependent and the latter is abstract and decontextualized.

　　句子意义是抽象的， 是句子的语义内容；话语意义基于句子意义， 是句子意义在特定语境中的具体化， 体现说话的人意图和目的。

　　Speech act theory言语行为理论

　　According to Austin, a speaker might be performing three acts simultaneously when speaking: locutionary act,illocutionary act and perlocutionary act.

　　英国哲学家奥斯汀提出， 在说话时， 说话人很可能同时实施三种言语行为，即言内行为， 言外行为和言后行为。

　　Eg：You have left the door wide open.

　　locutionary act: "you", "have", "door", "open"

　　illocutionary act: asking someone to close the door.

　　perlocutionary act:refers to the effect of the utterance. Whether got the information and close the door

　　Classification of illocutionary act by Searle 美国语言学家舍尔把言外行为分为5类：

　　Representatives: sating what the speaker believes to be true.

　　Directives: trying to get the hearer to do something.

　　Commissives: committing the speaker himself to some future action.

　　Expressives: expressing feelings or attitude towards an existing state.

　　Declarations: bringing about immediate changes by saying something

　　Principle of conversation 会话原则

　　Cooperative principle （CP）:合作原则

　　The maxim of quality 量准则

　　The maxim of quality质准则

　　The maxim of relation关联准则

　　The maxim of manner方式准则

　　第七章 历史语言学

　　第一节 研究语言变化的目的与意义

　　第二节 语言变化的本质

　　第三节 英语的历史发展

　　（1） 英语历史发展的主要阶段

　　（2） 英语语言系统的变化

　　第四节 语系

　　（1） 语系的划分

　　（2） 印欧语系

　　第五节 语言变化的原因

　　（1） 语音的同化

　　（2） 规则的简化与统一

　　（3） 内部借用

　　（4） 社会因素

　　（5） 文化传播

　　（6） 儿童语言习得

　　Historical linguistics

　　Historical linguistics is the subfield of linguistics that studies language change. （or historical development of language）

　　历史语言学是研究语言变化的一个分支。

　　The purpose and significance of the historical study of language 研究语言变化的目的与意义

　　The historical study of language is of great importance to our understanding of human languages and human linguistic competence. Researches in historical linguistics shed light on prehistoric developments in the evolution of language and the connections of earlier and later variants of the same language, and provide valuable insights into the kinship patterns of different language.

　　研究语言变化是对人类本身及其语言能力的再认识。 通过对语言变化史的研究， 我们可以对人类语言的形成与发展规律、各族语言的亲缘关系、语言发展和语言所处的社会历史环境的关系有一个深刻认识。

　　The nature of language change 语言变化的本质

　　As a general rule, language change is universal , continuous and , to a considerable degree, regular and systematic.

　　语言变化是普遍的， 持续的， 在一定的程度范围内规则的， 系统的变化。The historical development of English 英语的历史发展

　　Major periods in the history of English 英语历史发展的主要阶段

　　Old English古英语 （roughly from 449 to 1100）

　　Middle English 中古英语（roughly from 1100 to 1500）

　　Modern English现代英语 （roughly from 1500 to the present）1 Old English Period or The Anglo-Saxon Period （450-1100） （vocabulary 50,000 to 60,000）

　　2 Middle English Period （1150-1500）

　　3 Modern English Period （1500-now）: in fact more than 25% of modern E words come almost directly from classical languages. In Modern E, words endings were mostly lostLinguistic change of English 英语语言系统的变化 （loss， addition， 许多变化都表现为规则的失去、增加、外借和变异）

　　Sound change语音系统的变化

　　Morphological change 形态系统的变化

　　Syntactic change句法系统的变化

　　Lexical change词汇系统的变化

　　Semantic change语义系统的变化Language family 语系

　　Classifying genetically related languages 语系的划分

　　There is about 30 language families, 4 language families are considered to be the most important, namely, the Indo-European Family, the Sino-Tibetan Family, the Austronesian Family, and the Afroasiatic Family.

　　世界上有4千多种语言，分别隶属印欧、汉藏等30个语系。

　　The Indo-European language family 印欧语系

　　It has a membership of about 150 languages, including most European languages and Indian Subcontinental languages. It is the first and most widely investigated language family of the world.

　　印欧语系锁骨历史语言学家研究最早和最深的一种语系。 印欧语系含大部分欧洲语言和印度次大陆语言在内的约150种语言。

　　The Indo-European Language Family

　　The Eight Groups in Indo-European Family of Languages

　　The Balto-slavic Group（波罗的-斯拉夫语族）：Latvian,Russian,Bugarian,Polish,Czech etc.

　　The Indo-Iranian Group（印度-伊朗语族）：Sanskrit,Hindi,Urdu,Bengali,Persian etc.

　　The Armenian Group（亚美尼亚语族）：Armenian.

　　The Albanian Group（阿尔巴尼亚语族）：Albanian.

　　The Hellenic Group（古希腊语族）：Greek.

　　The Italian Group（意大利语族）：

　　Latin,Romance languages（French,Italian,Spanish, portuguess,Romanian） etc.

　　The Celtic Group（凯尔特语族）：Gaelic,Welsh,Breton etc.

　　The Germanic Group（日耳曼语族）：

　　Englsih,German,Dutch,Scandinavian（Norweigian, Swedish,Danish,Icelandic） etc

　　The cause of language change 语言变化的原因

　　Sound assimilation语音同化

　　Sound assimilation refers to the physiological effect of one sound on another. In an assimilative process, successive sounds is made identical, or more similar, to one another in terms of place or manner of articulation, or of haplology- the loss of one of two phonetically similar syllables in sequence.

　　语音同化是指一个音受其毗邻的音的音响而发生音变， 使其发音变得与毗邻的音接近。

　　"Engla-land"-"England" "ciese", "cinn" "cild"——cheese, chin ,childRule simplification and regularization 规则的简化与统一

　　It is a type of spontaneous morphological rule change that involves exceptional plural forms of nouns

　　英语名词复数的形式有规则形态变化与不规则形态变化两种， 在英语演化过程中， 由于不规则形态趋于规则化， 所以复数形式趋向简化。Internal borrowing 内部借用

　　Another kind of change that is motivated by the need to lessen the burden on memory is called internal borrowing.

　　引起语言变化的又一原因是旨在减轻记忆复旦的语言规则的内部借用现象。

　　Eg: cows as the plural of "cow" instead of the earlier plural "kine"Elaboration规则的细化

　　Rule elaboration occurs when there is a need to reduce ambiguity and increase communication clarity or expressiveness.

　　为了避免出现模棱两可、含糊不清的词句， 或为了提高语言表达上的准确性往往需要增加一些规则，致使句法规则更加细化。Social triggers社会因素

　　Linguists have become increasingly aware of sociological triggers for languages changes. Such as : wars, invasion, occupation, colonialization, and language planning and standardization policies lead to vigorous language changes.

　　Eg: Norman Conquest marked the dawning of the Middle English period.

　　促使语言变化的原因不仅有语言内部的， 更多的是来自语言系统外部的社会环境的变化， 如：侵略战争、殖民化政策、政府推行的语言规划政策或标准化运动等。Cultural transmission 文化传播

　　One of the most pervasive sources of language change seems to be the continual process of cultural transmission across generations.

　　Eg: old people "icebox" but younger one "fridge"

　　语言变化的原因还在于， 层出不穷的新观念和新事物需要人们用新的词语去表达。Children's approximation toward the adult grammar 儿童语言习得

　　The way children acquire the language constitutes another basic cause for language change. More importantly , children have a strong desire to simplify and regularize grammatical rules, particularly when they see adults use certain rules optionally.

　　儿童在习得母语时接收到了各种语言信息和表达习惯， 儿童往往偏向于习得简化了的或规则化的表达方式， 语言演化也就自然出现了。

International Phonetic Alphabet

源自：http://encyclopedia.thefreedictionary.com/International+Phonetics+Alphabet

International Phonetic Alphabet
Type	Alphabet
Languages	Reserved for phonetic and phonemic transcription of any language
Time period	1888 to the present
Parent systems	Romic alphabet  → Phonotypic alphabet   → International Phonetic Alphabet
Note: This page may contain IPA phonetic symbols in Unicode.

The International Phonetic Alphabet
History
Nonstandard symbols
Extended IPA
Naming conventions
IPA for English

The International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)^[I|] is a system of phonetic notation based on the Latin alphabet, devised by the International Phonetic Association as a standardized representation of the sounds of spoken language.^[1] The IPA is used by linguists, speech pathologists and therapists, foreign language teachers, singers, actors, lexicographers, and translators.^[2][3]

The IPA is designed to represent only those qualities of speech that are distinctive in spoken language: phonemes, intonation, and the separation of words and syllables.<ref name="IPA 1999" /> To represent additional qualities of speech such as tooth-gnashing, lisping, and sounds made with a cleft palate, an extended set of symbols called the Extended IPA is commonly used.<ref name="world" />

As of 2007, there are 107 distinct letters and 56 diacritics and suprasegmentals in the IPA proper. Occasionally symbols are added, removed, or modified by the International Phonetic Association.

History

Main article: History of the IPA

In 1886, a group of French and British language teachers, led by the French linguist Paul Passy, formed what would come to be known (from 1897 onwards) as the International Phonetic Association (in French, l’).^[4] The original alphabet was based on a spelling reform for English known as the Romic alphabet, but in order to make it usable for other languages, the values of the symbols were allowed to vary from language to language.^[5] For example, the sound /ʃ/ (sh in shoe) was originally represented with the letter <c> in English, but with the letter <x> in French.^[4] However, in 1888, the alphabet was revised so as to be uniform across languages, thus providing the base for all future revisions.^[4][6]

Since its creation, the organization of vowels and consonants in the IPA has remained largely the same. However, the alphabet itself has undergone a few revisions. The IPA Kiel Convention in 1989 made many changes to the earlier 1932 version. A minor revision took place in 1993, with the addition of the mid-central vowel<ref name="world" /> and the removal of symbols for voiceless implosives,^[7] and the alphabet was last revised in May 2005, when a symbol for the labiodental flap was added.^[8] Apart from the addition and removal of symbols, changes to the IPA have consisted largely in renaming symbols and categories, and modifying typefaces.<ref name="world" />

Extensions of the alphabet are relatively recent; the Extended IPA was created in 1990 and officially adopted by the International Clinical Phonetics and Linguistics Association in 1994.^[9] Also, the VoQS (Voice Quality Symbols) were proposed in 1995 to provide a system for more detailed transcription of voice production.^[10]

Description

The general principle of the IPA is to provide one symbol for each distinctive sound (or speech segment).^[11] This means that the IPA does not use letter combinations unless the sound being represented can be regarded as a sequence of two or more sounds.^[III|] The IPA also does not usually have separate letters for two sounds if no known language makes a distinction between them (a property known as "selectiveness"^[2]),^[IV|] and it does not use letters that represent multiple sounds, the way <x> represents the consonant cluster [ks] in English. Additionally, in the IPA no letters have sound values that are context-dependent, such as <c> in English (and most other European languages).

The symbols of the IPA are 107 letters for consonants and vowels, 31 diacritics which further specify those sounds, and 19 suprasegmentals, which indicate such qualities as length, tone, stress, and intonation.^[II|]

Letterforms

The symbols chosen for the IPA are meant to harmonize with the Latin alphabet.^[V|] For this reason, most symbols are either Latin or Greek letters, or modifications thereof. However, there are symbols that are neither: for example, the symbol denoting the glottal stop [ʔ] has the form of a "gelded" question mark, and was originally an apostrophe.^[VI|] Indeed, some symbols, such as that of the voiced pharyngeal fricative [ʕ], though modified to look more Latin, were inspired by glyphs in other writing systems (in this case, the Arabic letter <ﻉ>‎, `ain).^[7]

Despite its preference for letters that harmonize with the Latin alphabet, the International Phonetic Association has occasionally admitted symbols that do not have this property. For example, prior to 1989, the IPA symbols for click consonants were [​ʘ​], [​ʇ​], [​ʗ​], and [​ʖ​], all of which are clearly derived from Latin and Greek letters, as well as punctuation marks. However, except for [ʘ], none of these symbols was reflective of contemporary practice among Khoisanists (the main users of symbols for click consonants). As a result, they were replaced by the less Latin-like but more widespread symbols [​ʘ​], [​ǀ​], [​ǃ​], [​ǂ​], and [​ǁ​] at the IPA Kiel Convention in 1989.^[12]

Symbols and sounds

The International Phonetic Alphabet is based on the Latin alphabet, using as few non-Latin forms as possible.^[4] The Association created the IPA so that the sound values of most consonants taken from the Latin alphabet would correspond to “international usage”.^[4] Hence, the letters [b], [d], [f], (hard) [ɡ], (hard) [h], [k], [l], [m], [n], [p], (voiceless) [s], [t], [v], [w], and [z] have the values used in English; and the vowels from the Latin alphabet ([a], [e], [i], [o], [u]) correspond to the sound values of Latin: [i] is like the vowel in machine, [u] is as in rule, etc. Other letters may differ from English, but are used with these values in other European languages, such as [j], [r], and [y].

This inventory was extended by using capital or cursive forms, diacritics, and rotation. There are also several derived from the Greek alphabet ([β], [ɣ], [ɛ], [θ], [ɸ], [χ], and [ʋ]), though the sound values may differ. [ʋ], for example, is a vowel in Greek, but an only indirectly related consonant in the IPA.

The sound values of modified Latin letters can often be derived from those of the original letters.^[13] For example, letters with a rightward-facing hook at the bottom represent retroflex consonants; and small capital letters usually represent uvular consonants. Apart from the fact that certain kinds of modification to the shape of a letter generally correspond to certain kinds of modification to the sound represented, there is no way to deduce the sound represented by a symbol from the shape of the symbol (unlike, for example, in Visible Speech).

Beyond the letters themselves, there are a variety of secondary symbols which aid in transcription. Diacritic marks can be combined with IPA letters to transcribe modified phonetic values or secondary articulations. There are also special symbols for suprasegmental features such as stress and tone that are often employed.

Usage

Further information: Phonetic transcription

Although the IPA offers over a hundred symbols for transcribing speech, it is not necessary to use all relevant symbols at the same time; it is possible to transcribe speech with various levels of accuracy. The most accurate kind of phonetic transcription, in which sounds are described in as much detail as the system allows, without any regard for the linguistic significance of the distinctions thus made, is known as narrow transcription. Anything else is termed broad transcription, though "broad" is obviously a relative term. Both kinds of transcriptions are generally enclosed in brackets,^[13] but broad transcriptions are sometimes enclosed in slashes instead of brackets.


Broad transcription only distinguishes sounds which are considered different by speakers of a language. Sounds that may be pronounced differently between styles and dialects or depending on neighbouring sounds can be considered the "same" sound in the sense that they are allophones of the same phoneme. When a word is written as phonemes, it is usually enclosed in slashes. For example, the American pronunciation of the English word "little" may be transcribed broadly using the IPA as /lɪtl/. This broad transcription merely identifies the separate phonetically relevant components of the word, and does not indicate the variety of corresponding sounds. On the other hand, the narrow transcription (placed between square brackets) specifies the way each sound is pronounced. A more narrow transcription of "little" would be different depending on the way it is said: [lɪɾɫ], [lɪʔɫ], or [lɪːɫ] are just a few possibilities.

Use in dictionaries

Many British English dictionaries, such as the Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary and the Cambridge Advanced Learner's Dictionary, now use the International Phonetic Alphabet to represent the pronunciation of words.^[14] However, most American (and some British) volumes use their own conventions supposed to be more intuitive for readers unfamiliar with the IPA. For example, the pronunciation-representation systems in many American dictionaries (such as Merriam-Webster) use "y" for IPA [j] and "sh" for IPA [ʃ], reflecting common representations of those sounds in written English.^[15] (In IPA, [y] represents the sound of the French u (as in tu), and [sh] represents the pair of sounds in grass hut.)

One of the benefits of using an alternative to the IPA is the ability to use a single symbol for a sound pronounced differently in different dialects. For example, the American Heritage Dictionary uses ŏ for the vowel in cot (kŏt) but ô for the one in caught (kôt).^[16] American regional dialects without the caught-cot merger generally pronounce cŏt like IPA [kʰɑt] (with an open central unrounded vowel) and côt like IPA [kʰɔt] (with an open back rounded vowel), whereas those with the merger pronounce the vowels ŏ and ô the same way (for example, like IPA [ɒ] in the Boston dialect). Using one symbol for the vowel in cot (instead of having different symbols for different pronunciations of the o) enables the dictionary to provide meaningful pronunciations for speakers of most dialects of English.

The IPA is also not universal among dictionaries in other countries and languages. Mass-market Czech multilingual dictionaries, for instance, tend to use the IPA only for sounds not found in the Czech language.^[17]

Educational initiative

There is some interest in using native speakers to produce sound and video files of sufficient breadth to completely demonstrate all the speech sounds covered by the IPA. Such a project would encompass a large subset of the world's languages. This would aid linguistic and anthropologic research, as well as help teach language learning. Specifically, the development of a reference standard using the IPA (mirroring the idea of the Rosetta Stone) could be used in order to preserve intact examples of the sounds of human language. For education, the IPA can help standardize resources which prepare students and very young children (ages 6-36 months) for universal language acquisition through familiarization and subsequent imitation of the breadth of human speech sounds.^[18] Research by Flege, Mackay and Piske (2002) and Sebastián-Gallés, Echeverría and Bosch (2005) have shown that early exposure to extra phonetic sounds and uses improves later comprehension and pronunciation (accent).

Use in orthographies and capital variants

See also:

IPA symbols have been incorporated into the standard orthographies of various languages, notably in Subsaharan Africa but in other regions as well. These include for example: Hausa; Fula; Akan; Gbe languages; and Manding languages.

An example of capital letter forms for IPA symbols is Kabiyé of northern Togo, which has Ɔ Ɛ Ŋ Ɣ Ʃ (capital ɔ ɛ ŋ ɣ ʃ). Other IPA-paired capitals include Ɓ/Ƃ Ƈ Ɗ/Ƌ Ə/Ǝ Ɠ Ħ Ɯ Ɲ Ɵ Ʈ Ʊ Ʋ Ʒ.

The abovementioned and other capital forms are supported by Unicode, but appear in Latin ranges other than the IPA extensions.

Letters

The International Phonetic Alphabet divides its letter symbols into three categories: pulmonic consonants, non-pulmonic consonants, and vowels.^[19][20] Each character is assigned a number, to prevent confusion between similar letters (such as ɵ and θ), for example in printing manuscripts. Different categories of sounds are assigned different ranges of numbers.

Consonants (pulmonic)

Main article: Consonant

A pulmonic consonant is a consonant made by obstructing the glottis (the space between the vocal cords) or oral cavity (the mouth) and either simultaneously or subsequently letting out air from the lungs. Pulmonic consonants make up the majority of consonants in the IPA, as well as in human language. All consonants in the English language fall into this category.^[21]

The pulmonic consonant table, which includes most consonants, is arranged in rows that designate manner of articulation, meaning how the consonant is produced, and columns that designate place of articulation, meaning where in the vocal tract the consonant is produced. The main chart includes only consonants with a single place of articulation.

Place of articulation ?	Labial		Coronal				Dorsal				Radical				Glottal
	Bilabial	Labio‐ dental	Dental	Alveolar	Post‐ alveolar	Retro‐ flex	Palatal	Velar	Uvular		Pharyn‐ geal		Epi‐ glottal
Manner of articulation ?
Nasal	m	ɱ	n			ɳ	ɲ	ŋ	ɴ
Plosive	p b	p̪ b̪	t d			ʈ ɖ	c ɟ	k ɡ	q ɢ				ʡ		ʔ
Fricative	ɸ β	f v	θ ð	s z	ʃ ʒ	ʂ ʐ	ç ʝ	x ɣ	χ	ʁ	ħ	ʕ	ʜ	ʢ	h ɦ
Approximant	β̞	ʋ	ɹ			ɻ	j	ɰ
Trill	ʙ		r			*			ʀ				*
Tap or Flap	ѵ̟†	ѵ†	ɾ			ɽ							*
Lateral Fricative			ɬ ɮ			*	*	*
Lateral Approx­imant			l			ɭ	ʎ	ʟ
Lateral Flap			ɺ			*	*	*

Notes

• 
  
• Asterisks (*) mark reported sounds that do not (yet) have official IPA symbols. See the respective articles for ad hoc symbols found in the literature.
  
• Daggers (†) mark IPA symbols that do not yet have official Unicode support. Since May 2005, this is the case of the labiodental flap, symbolized by a right-hook v: .^[22] In the meantime the similarly shaped izhitsa (ѵ) is used here.
  
• In rows where some symbols appear in pairs (the obstruents), the symbol to the right represents a voiced consonant (except breathy-voiced [ɦ]). However, [ʔ] cannot be voiced. In the other rows (the sonorants), the single symbol represents a voiced consonant.
  
• Although there is a single symbol for the coronal places of articulation for all consonants but fricatives, when dealing with a particular language, the symbols are treated as specifically alveolar, post-alveolar, etc., as appropriate for that language.
  
• Shaded areas indicate articulations judged to be impossible.
  
• The symbols [ʁ, ʕ, ʢ] represent either voiced fricatives or approximants.
  
• It is primarily the shape of the tongue rather than its position that distinguishes the fricatives [ʃ ʒ], [ɕ ʑ], and [ʂ ʐ].

Coarticulation

Coarticulated consonants are sounds that involve two simultaneous places of articulation (are pronounced using two parts of the vocal tract). In English, the [w] in "went" is a coarticulated consonant, because it is pronounced by rounding the lips and raising the back of the tongue. Other languages, such as French and Swedish, have different coarticulated consonants.

ʍ	Voiceless labialized velar approximant
w	Voiced labialized velar approximant
ɥ	Voiced labialized palatal approximant
ɕ	Voiceless palatalized postalveolar (alveolo-palatal) fricative
ʑ	Voiced palatalized postalveolar (alveolo-palatal) fricative
ɧ	Voiceless "palatal-velar" fricative

Note

• 
  
• [ɧ] is described as a "simultaneous [ʃ] and [x]".^[23] However, this analysis is disputed. (See voiceless palatal-velar fricative for discussion.)

Affricates and double articulation

Affricates and doubly articulated stops are represented by two symbols joined by a tie bar, either above or below the symbols. The six most common affricates are optionally represented by ligatures, though this is no longer official IPA usage,^[13] because a great number of ligatures would be required to represent all affricates this way. Alternatively, a superscript notation for a consonant release is sometimes used to transcribe affricates, for example tˢ for t​͡s, paralleling kˣ ~ k͡x. The symbols for the palatal plosives, <c ɟ>, are often used as a convenience for [t​͡ʃ d͡ʒ] or similar affricates, even in official IPA publications, so they must be interpreted with care.

Tie bar	Ligature	Description
t​͡s	ʦ	voiceless alveolar affricate
d​͡z	ʣ	voiced alveolar affricate
t​͡?	ʧ	voiceless postalveolar affricate
d​͡?	ʤ	voiced postalveolar affricate
t​͡?	ʨ	voiceless alveolo-palatal affricate
d​͡?	ʥ	voiced alveolo-palatal affricate
t​͡ɬ	–	voiceless alveolar lateral affricate
k͡p	–	voiceless labial-velar plosive
ɡ͡b	–	voiced labial-velar plosive
ŋ͡m	–	labial-velar nasal stop

Note

• 
  
• If your browser uses Arial Unicode MS to display IPA characters, the following incorrectly formed sequences may look better due to a bug in that font: ts͡, tʃ͡, tɕ͡, dz͡, dʒ͡, dʑ͡, tɬ͡, kp͡, ɡb͡, ŋm͡.

Consonants (non-pulmonic)

Non-pulmonic consonants are sounds which are made without the lungs. These include clicks (found in the Khoisan languages of Africa) and implosives (found in languages such as Swahili).

Clicks		Implosives		Ejectives
ʘ	Bilabial	ɓ	Bilabial	ʼ	For example:
ǀ	Laminal alveolar ("dental")	ɗ	Alveolar	pʼ	Bilabial
ǃ	Apical (post-) alveolar ("retroflex")	ʄ	Palatal	tʼ	Alveolar
ǂ	Laminal postalveolar ("palatal")	ɠ	Velar	kʼ	Velar
ǁ	Lateral coronal ("lateral")	ʛ	Uvular	sʼ	Alveolar fricative

Notes

• 
  
• Clicks are double articulated and have traditionally been described as having a forward 'release' and a rear 'accompaniment', with the click letters representing the release. Therefore all clicks would require two letters for proper notation: [k͡ǂ, ɡ͡ǂ, ŋ͡ǂ, q͡ǂ, ɢ͡ǂ, ɴ͡ǂ] etc., or [ǂ͡k, ǂ͡ɡ, ǂ͡ŋ, ǂ͡q, ǂ͡ɢ, ǂ͡ɴ]. When the dorsal articulation is omitted, a [k] may usually be assumed. However, recent research disputes the concept of 'accompaniment'.^[24] In such approaches, the click letter represents both articulations, there is no velar-uvular distinction, and the accompanying letter represents the manner of the click: [ǂ, ^ɡǂ, ^ŋǂ] etc.
  
• Symbols for the voiceless implosives [ƥ, ƭ, ƈ, ƙ, ʠ] are no longer supported by the IPA, though they remain in Unicode. Instead, the IPA uses the voiced equivalent with a voiceless diacritic: [ɓ̥, ʛ̥], etc.
  
• Although not confirmed from any language, and therefore not explicitly recognized by the IPA, a retroflex implosive, [ᶑ], is supported in the Unicode Phonetic Extensions Supplement, added in version 4.1 of the Unicode Standard, or can be created as a composite [ɗ̢].
  
• The ejective symbol is often substituted for a superscript glottal stop in glottalized but pulmonic sonorants, such as [mˀ], [lˀ], [wˀ], [aˀ]. These may also be transcribed as creaky [m̰], [l̰], [w̰], [a̰].

Vowels

Main article: Vowel

The IPA defines a vowel as a sound which occurs at a syllable center.^[25] Below is a chart depicting the vowels of the IPA. The IPA maps the vowels according to the position of the tongue.

The vertical axis of the chart is mapped by vowel height. Vowels pronounced with the tongue lowered are at the bottom, and vowels pronounced with the tongue raised are at the top. For example, [ɑ] (said as the "a" in "palm") is at the bottom because the tongue is lowered in this position. However, [i] (said as the vowel in "meet") is at the top because the sound is said with the tongue raised to the roof of the mouth.

In a similar fashion, the horizontal axis of the chart is determined by vowel backness. Vowels with the tongue moved towards the front of the mouth (such as [ɛ], the vowel in "met") are to the left in the chart, while those in which it is moved to the back (such as [ʌ], the vowel in "but") are placed to the right in the chart.

In places where vowels are paired, the right represents a rounded vowel (in which the lips are rounded) while the left is its unrounded counterpart.

Notes

• 
  
• [a] officially represents a front vowel, but there is little distinction between front and central open vowels, and [a] is frequently used for an open central vowel.
  
• [ʊ] and [ɪ] were written as <ɷ> and <ɩ> respectively in older versions of the IPA.

Diacritics

Diacritics are small markings which are placed around the IPA letter in order to show a certain alteration or more specific description in the letter's pronunciation.^[26] Sub-diacritics (markings normally placed below a letter or symbol) may be placed above a symbol having a descender (informally called a tail), e.g. ŋ̊.^[26]

The dotless i, <ı>, is used when the dot would interfere with the diacritic. Other IPA symbols may appear as diacritics to represent phonetic detail: tˢ (fricative release), bʱ (breathy voice), ˀa (glottal onset), ᵊ (epenthetic schwa), o^ʊ (diphthongization). More advanced diacritics were developed in the Extended IPA for more specific pronunciation encoding.

Syllabicity diacritics
ɹ̩ n?	Syllabic	e̯ ʊ?	Non-syllabic
Consonant-release diacritics
tʰ d?	Aspirated[a|]	d?	No audible release
dn	Nasal release	d?	Lateral release
Phonation diacritics
n̥ d?	Voiceless	s̬ t?	Voiced
b̤ a?	Breathy voiced[b|]	b̰ a?	Creaky voiced
Articulation diacritics
t̪ d?	Dental	t̼ d?	Linguolabial
t̺ d?	Apical	t̻ d?	Laminal
u̟ t?	Advanced	i̠ t?	Retracted
ë ä	Centralized	e̽ ɯ?	Mid-centralized
e̝ ɹ̝ ?	Raised (ɹ̝ = voiced alveolar nonsibilant fricative)
e̞ β̞ ?	Lowered (β̞ = bilabial approximant)
Co-articulation diacritics
ɔ̹ x?	More rounded	ɔ̜ x̜?	Less rounded
tʷ d?	Labialized	tʲ d?	Palatalized
tˠ d?	Velarized	tˁ d?	Pharyngealized
ɫ z?	Velarized or pharyngealized
e̘ o?	Advanced tongue root	e̙ o?	Retracted tongue root
ẽ z~	Nasalized	ɚ ?	Rhotacized

Notes

a^ With aspirated voiced consonants, the aspiration is also voiced. Many linguists prefer one of the diacritics dedicated to breathy voice.

b^ Some linguists restrict this breathy-voice diacritic to sonorants, and transcribe obstruents as bʱ.

The state of the glottis can be finely transcribed with diacritics. A series of alveolar plosives ranging from an open to a closed glottis phonation are:

[t]	voiceless	[d̤]	breathy voice, also called murmured
[d̥]	slack voice	[d]	modal voice
[d̬]	stiff voice	[d̰]	creaky voice
[ʔ͡t]	glottal closure

Suprasegmentals

These symbols describe the features of a language above the level of individual consonants and vowels, such as prosody, tone, length, and stress, which often operate on syllables, words, or phrases: that is, elements such as the intensity, pitch, and gemination of the sounds of a language, as well as the rhythm and intonation of speech.^[27] Although most of these symbols indicate distinctions that are phonemic at the word level, symbols also exist for intonation on a level greater than that of the word.<ref name="Handbook13" />

Length, stress, and rhythm
'	Primary stress (symbol goes before stressed syllable)	?	Secondary stress (symbol goes before stressed syllable)
?	Long (long vowel or geminate consonant)	?	Half-long
?	Extra-short	.	Syllable break
?	Linking (absence of a break)
Intonation
|	Minor (foot) break	?	Major (intonation) break
?	Global rise	?	Global fall
Tones
e̋ or ?	Extra high	ê	Fall
é or ?	High	e	Rise
ē or ?	Mid
è or ?	Low	↓e	Downstep
ȅ or ?	Extra low	↑e	Upstep

Obsolete symbols and nonstandard symbols

Main article: Obsolete and nonstandard symbols in the International Phonetic Alphabet

The IPA inherited alternate symbols from various traditions, but eventually settled on one for each sound. The other symbols are now considered obsolete. An example is ɷ which has been standardised to ʊ. Several symbols indicating secondary articulation have been dropped altogether, with the idea that such things should be indicated with diacritics: ƍ for zʷ is one. In addition, the rare voiceless implosive series ƥ ƭ ƈ ƙ ʠ has been dropped; they are now written ɓ̥ ɗ̥ ʄ̊ ɠ̊ ʛ̥ respectively.

There are also unsupported or ad hoc symbols from local traditions that find their way into publications that otherwise use the standard IPA. This is especially common with affricates such as ƛ for t​͡ɬ (the "tl" in "Nahuatl").

IPA extensions

Main article: Extended IPA

The Extended IPA, also often abbreviated as extIPA, is a group of symbols whose original purpose was to accurately transcribe disordered speech. At the IPA Kiel Convention in 1989, a group of linguists drew up the initial set of symbols for the Extended IPA.^[28] The Extended IPA was first published in 1990, and modified over the next few years before its official publication in the Journal of the International Phonetic Association in 1994 allowed it to be officially adopted by the ICPLA.^[29] While its original purpose was to transcribe disordered speech, linguists have used it to designate a number of unique sounds within standard communication, such as hushing, gnashing teeth, and smacking lips. The Extended IPA has also been used to record certain peculiarities in an individual's voice, such as nasalized voicing.<ref name="world" />

Aside from the extIPA, another set of symbols is used for voice quality (VoQS), such as whispering.

Sounds that have no symbols in the IPA

The remaining blank cells on the IPA chart can be filled without too much difficulty if the need arises. Some ad hoc symbols have appeared in the literature, for example for the retroflex lateral flap and the voiceless lateral fricative series, the epiglottal trill, and the labiodental plosives. (See the grey symbols in the PDF chart.) Diacritics can supply much of the remainder, which would indeed be appropriate if the sounds were allophones.^[30]

Consonants without letters

Consonant sounds are created by adding diacritics to letters with similar sound values. The Spanish bilabial approximant is commonly written as a lowered fricative, [β̞]. Similarly, voiced lateral fricatives would be written as raised lateral approximants, [ɭ˔ ʎ̝ ʟ̝]. A few languages such as Banda have a bilabial flap as the preferred allophone of what is elsewhere a labiodental flap. Similarly, a labiodental trill would be written [ʙ̪] (bilabial trill and the dental sign). Other taps can be written as extra-short plosives or laterals, e.g. [ɟ̆ ɢ̆ ʟ̆], though in some cases the diacritic would need to be written below the letter. A retroflex trill can be written as a retracted [r̠], just as retroflex fricatives sometimes are. The remaining consonants, the uvular laterals and the palatal trill, while not strictly impossible, are very difficult to pronounce and are unlikely to occur even as allophones in the world's languages.

Vowels without letters

The vowels are similarly manageable by using diacritics for raising, lowering, fronting, backing, centering, and mid-centering.^[31] For example, the unrounded equivalent of [ʊ] can be transcribed as mid-centered [ɯ̽], and the rounded equivalent of [æ] as raised [ɶ̝]. True mid vowels are lowered [e̞ ø̞ ɘ̞ ɵ̞ ɤ̞ o̞], while centered [ɪ̈ ʊ̈] and [ä] are near-close and open central vowels, respectively. The only known vowels that cannot be represented in this scheme are the compressed vowels, which would require a dedicated diacritic, such as [ʏ̫].

Symbol names

Main article: Naming conventions of the International Phonetic Alphabet

An IPA symbol is often distinguished from the sound it is intended to represent since there is not a one-to-one correspondence between symbol and sound in broad transcription. While the Handbook of the International Phonetic Association states that no official names exist for symbols, it admits the presence of one or two common names for each character that are commonly used.^[32] The symbols also have nonce names in the Unicode standard. In some cases, the Unicode names and the IPA names do not agree. For example, IPA calls ɛ "epsilon", but Unicode calls it "small letter open E".

The traditional names of the Latin and Greek letters are usually used for unmodified symbols.^[VII|] Letters which are not directly derived from these alphabets, such as [ʕ], may have a variety of names, sometimes based on the appearance of the symbol, and sometimes based on the sound that it represents. In Unicode, some of the symbols of Greek origin have Latin forms for use in IPA; the others use the symbols from the Greek section.

For diacritics, there are two methods of naming. For traditional diacritics, the IPA uses the name of the symbol from a certain language, for example, é is acute, based on the name of the symbol in English and French. In non-traditional diacritics, the IPA often names a symbol according to an object it resembles, as d̪ is called bridge.

ASCII transliterations, IPA influence on other phonetic alphabets

See also:

Since the IPA uses symbols that are outside the ASCII character set, several systems have been developed that map the IPA symbols to ASCII characters. Notable systems include Kirshenbaum, SAMPA, and X-SAMPA. The usage of mapping systems in on-line text has to some extent been adopted in the context input methods, allowing convenient keying of IPA characters that would be otherwise unavailable on standard keyboard layouts.

See also

• 
  
• Phonetic transcription
  
• Articulatory phonetics
  
• List of phonetics topics
  
• TIPA provides IPA support for LaTeX.
  
• SAMPA, X-SAMPA and Kirshenbaum are other methods of mapping IPA designations into ASCII.
  
• Unicode Phonetic Symbols
  
• Semyon Novgorodov - the inventor of IPA-based Yakut alphabet.
  
• IAST
  
• IPA chart for English

Notes

Citations

References

External links

General

• 
  
• A little encyclopedia of phonetics, Peter Roach, Professor of Phonetics, University of Reading, UK. (pdf)
  
• The International Phonetic Association web site
  
• The International Phonetic Alphabet (revised to 2005) Symbols for all languages are shown on this one-page chart.
  
• IPA copy & paste charts, keyboards, etc by IPA.Webstuff.org
  
• Learning the IPA for English, (Standard American English)
  
• Information on IPA by Omniglot
  
• IPA Chart in Unicode and XHTML/CSS
  
• Using IPA fonts with Mac OS X: The Comprehensive Guide, an article explaining how to install and use freeware fonts and keyboard layouts to type in the International Phonetic Alphabet on OS X.

Free IPA font downloads

• 
  
• Gentium, a professionally designed international font (Latin, Greek, Cyrillic) in roman and italic typefaces that includes the IPA, but not yet tone letters or the new labiodental flap.
  
• Charis SIL, a very complete international font (Latin, Greek, Cyrillic) in roman, italic, and bold typefaces that includes tone letters and pre-composed tone diacritics on IPA vowels, the new labiodental flap, and many non-standard phonetic symbols. Based on Bitstream Charter, this font suffers from extremely bad hinting when rendered by Freetype on Linux.
  
• Doulos SIL, a Times/Times New Roman style font. It contains the same characters as Charis SIL, but only in a single face, roman.
  
• SIL93 the legacy SIL IPA93 fonts (Manuscript and Sophia) recoded in Unicode.
  
• TIPA, a font and system for entering IPA phonetic transcriptions in LaTeX documents.

Keyboard input

• 
  
• Online keyboard
  
• Online keyboard with MP3 sound files for IPA symbols
  
• Downloadable IPA-SIL keyboard layout for Mac OS X for Unicode IPA input
  
• Downloadable IPA keyboard layout for Microsoft Windows for Unicode IPA input
  
• IPACharMap is an on-screen keyboard for point and click character entry, which can then be copied and pasted into a unicode-aware word processor. Based on IPA Palette.
  
• IPA Palette is the Mac OS X version of IPACharMap.
  
• Microsoft Template - Creates a Toolbar for Microsoft Word. (Please be aware this uses Macros)

Sound files

• 
  
• Peter Ladefoged's Course in Phonetics (with sound files)
  
• IPA chart with AIFF sound files for IPA symbols
  
• An introduction to the sounds of languages
  
• IPA chart with MP3 sound files for all IPA symbols on the chart (limited version is available to anyone)
  
• Flash version of IPA charts, with sound samples
  
• Another set of IPA sound samples

Unicode charts

• 
  
• Unicode chart for main IPA lettersPDF (118 KiB)
  
• Unicode chart for IPA modifier lettersPDF (90.0 KiB)
  
• Unicode chart including IPA diacriticsPDF (104 KiB)
  
• International Phonetic Alphabet in Unicode
  
• Unicode-HTML codes for IPA symbols: Tables of symbol names and HTML codes at PennState.

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英语语言学论文写作选题的几个基本方向

英语语言学论文可写的内容或者选题有很多。但是基本上不外乎以下几点：
1）语音类的英语语言学论文
如语音的属性、音韵与语音的关系、强弱、轻浊、音节等
2）词汇类的英语语言学论文
如词汇形态学，语义学，构词，词化，语义场等等
3）语法类的英语语言学论文
如语法结构，层次，修辞等
4）句子类的英语语言学论文
如分析句子的各种成分，语序，基本句型等
5）语篇类的英语语言学论文
如连贯性，思维逻辑性，结构修辞，主体与客体意识等

目前来看，英语与汉语的对比语言学和对比文学比较热门，您的论文从这方面出发也很好。


转自[英美者]-英语专业网站：http://www.enmajor.com/cn/Html/M/Linguistics/1726735.html

《英语语言学概论》重、难点提示1

1.1. What is language?
“Language is system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. It is a system, since linguistic elements are arranged systematically, rather than randomly. Arbitrary, in the sense that there is usually no intrinsic connection between a work (like “book”) and the object it refers to. This explains and is explained by the fact that different languages have different “books”: “book” in English, “livre” in French, in Japanese, in Chinese, “check” in Korean. It is symbolic, because words are associated with objects, actions, ideas etc. by nothing but convention. Namely, people use the sounds or vocal forms to symbolize what they wish to refer to. It is vocal, because sound or speech is the primary medium for all human languages, developed or “new”. Writing systems came much later than the spoken forms. The fact that small children learn and can only learn to speak (and listen) before they write (and read) also indicates that language is primarily vocal, rather than written. The term “human” in the definition is meant to specify that language is human specific.

1.2. What are design features of language?
“Design features” here refer to the defining properties of human language that tell the difference between human language and any system of animal communication. They are arbitrariness, duality, productivity, displacement, cultural transmission and interchangeability

1.3. What is arbitrariness?
By “arbitrariness”, we mean there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds (see I .1). A dog might be a pig if only the first person or group of persons had used it for a pig. Language is therefore largely arbitrary. But language is not absolutely seem to be some sound-meaning association, if we think of echo words, like “bang”, “crash”, “roar”, which are motivated in a certain sense. Secondly, some compounds (words compounded to be one word ) are not entirely arbitrary either. “Type” and “write” are opaque or unmotivated words, while “type-writer” is less so, or more transparent or motivated than the words that make it. So we can say “arbitrariness” is a matter of degree.

1.4.What is duality?
Linguists refer “duality” (of structure) to the fact that in all languages so far investigated, one finds two levels of structure or patterning. At the first, higher level, language is analyzed in terms of combinations of meaningful units (such as morphemes, words etc.) ; at the second, lower level, it is seen as a sequence of segments which lack any meaning in themselves, but which combine to form units of meaning. According to Hu Zhanglin et al. (p.6) , language is a system of two sets of structures, one of sounds and the other of meaning. This is important for the workings of language. A small number of semantic units (words), and these units of meaning can be arranged and rearranged into an infinite number of sentences (note that we have dictionaries of words, but no dictionary of sentences!). Duality makes it possible for a person to talk about anything within his knowledge. No animal communication system enjoys this duality, or even approaches this honour.

1.5.What is productivity?
Productivity refers to the ability to the ability to construct and understand an indefinitely large number of sentences in one’s native language, including those that has never heard before, but that are appropriate to the speaking situation. No one has ever said or heard “A red-eyed elephant is dancing on the small hotel bed with an African gibbon”, but he can say it when necessary, and he can understand it in right register. Different from artistic creativity, though, productivity never goes outside the language, thus also called “rule-bound creativity” (by N.Chomsky).

1.6.What is displacement?
“Displacement”, as one of the design features of the human language, refers to the fact that one can talk about things that are not present, as easily as he does things present. In other words, one can refer to real and unreal things, things of the past, of the present, of the future. Language itself can be talked about too. When a man, for example, is crying to a woman, about something, it might be something that had occurred, or something that is occurring, or something that is to occur. When a dog is barking, however, you can decide it is barking for something or at someone that exists now and there. It couldn’t be bow-wowing sorrowfully for dome lost love or a bone to be lost. The bee’s system, nonetheless, has a small share of “displacement”, but it is an unspeakable tiny share.

1.7.What is cultural transmission?
This means that language is not biologically transmitted from generation to generation, but that the details of the linguistic system must be learned anew by each speaker. It is true that the capacity for language in human beings(N. Chomsky called it “language acquisition device”, or LAD) has a genetic basis, but the particular language a person learns to speak is a cultural one other than a genetic one like the dog’s barking system. If a human being is brought up in isolation he cannot acquire language. The Wolf Child reared by the pack of wolves turned out to speak the wolf’s roaring “tongue” when he was saved. He learned thereafter, with no small difficulty, the ABC of a certain human language.

1.8.What is interchangeability?
(1)    Interchangeability means that any human being can be both a producer and a receiver of messages. We can say, and on other occasions can receive and understand, for example, “Please do something to make me happy.” Though some people (including me) suggest that there is sex differentiation in the actual language use, in other words, men and women may say different things, yet in principle there is no sound, or word or sentence that a man can utter and a woman cannot, or vice versa. On the other hand, a person can be the speaker while the other person is the listener and as the turn moves on to the listener, he can be the speaker and the first speaker is to listen. It is turn-taking that makes social communication possible and acceptable.
(2)    Some male birds, however, utter some calls which females do not (or cannot?) , and certain kinds of fish have similar haps mentionable. When a dog barks, all the neighbouring dogs bark. Then people around can hardly tell which dog (dogs) is (are0 “speaking” and which listening.

1.9.Why do linguists say language is human specific?
First of all, human language has six “design features” which animal communication systems do not have, at least not in the true sense of them(see I .2- . Let’s borrow C. F. Hocket’s Chart that compares human language with some animals’ systems, from Wang Gang(1998,p. .
Secondly, linguists have done a lot trying to teach animals such as chimpanzees to speak a human language but have achieved nothing inspiring. Washoe, a female chimpanzee, was brought up like a human child by Beatnice and Alan Gardner. She was taught “American sign Language”, and learned a little that made the teachers happy but did mot make the linguistics circle happy, for few believed in teaching chimpanzees.
Thirdly, a human child reared among animals cannot speak a human language, not even when he is taken back and taught to lo to so (see the “Wolf Child”in I.7)

1.10.What functions does language have?
Language has at least seven functions: phatic, directive, Informative, interrogative, expressive, evocative and performative. According to Wang Gang (1988,p.11), language has three main functions: a tool of communication, a tool whereby people learn about the world, and a tool by which people learn about the world, and a tool by which people create art . M .A. K.Halliday, representative of the London school, recognizes three “Macro-Functions”: ideational, interpersonal and textual(see !.11-17;see HU Zhuanglin et al.,pp10-13,pp394-396).

1.11  What is the phatic function?
The “phatic function” refers to language being used for setting up a certain atmosphere or maintaining social contacts(rather than for exchanging information or ideas). Greetings, farewells, and comments on the weather in English and on clothing in Chinese all serve this function. Much of the phatic language (e.g. “How are you?” “Fine, thanks.”) is insincere if taken literally, but it is important. If you don't say “Hello” to a friend you meet, or if you don’t answer his “Hi”, you ruin your friendship.

1.12. What is the directive function?
The “directive function” means that language may be used to get the hearer to do something. Most imperative sentences perform this function, e. g., “Tell me the result when you finish.” Other syntactic structures or sentences of other sorts can, according to J.Austin and J.Searle’s “indrect speech act theory”(see Hu Zhuanglin et al.,pp271-27 at least, serve the purpose of direction too, e.g., “If I were you, I would have blushed to the bottom of my ears!”

1.13.What is the informative function?
Language serves an “informational function” when used to tell something, characterized by the use of declarative sentences. Informative statements are often labelled as true(truth) or false(falsehood). According to P.Grice’s “Cooperative Principle”(see Hu Zhuanglin et al., pp282-283), one ought not to violate the “Maxim of Quality”, when he is informing at all.

1.14.What is the interrogative function?
When language is used to obtain information, it serves an “interrogative function”. This includes all questions that expect replies, statements, imperatives etc., according to the “indirect speech act theory”, may have this function as well, e.g., “I’d like to know you better.” This may bring forth a lot of personal information. Note that rhetorical questions make an exception, since they demand no answer, at least not the reader’s/listener’s answer.

1.15.What is the expressive function?
The “expressive function” is the use of language to reveal something about the feelings or attitudes of the speaker. Subconscious emotional ejaculations are good examples, like “Good heavens!” “My God!” Sentences like “I’m sorry about the delay” can serve as good examples too, though in a subtle way. While language is used for the informative function to pass judgement on the truth or falsehood of statements, language used for the expressive function evaluates, appraises or asserts the speaker’s own attitudes.

1.16.What is the evocative function?
The “evocative function” is the use of language to create certain feelings in the hearer. Its aim is , for example, to amuse, startle, antagonize, soothe, worry or please. Jokes(not practical jokes, though) are supposed to amuse or entertain the listener; advertising to urge customers to purchase certain commodities; propaganda to influence public opinion. Obviously, the expressive and the evocative functions often go together, i.e., you may express, for example, your personal feelings about a political issue but end up by evoking the same feeling in, or imposing it on, your listener. That’s also the case with the other way round.

1.17.What is the performative function?
This means people speak to “do things” or perform actions. On certain occasions the utterance itself as an action is more important than what words or sounds constitute the uttered sentence. When asked if a third Yangtze bridge ought to be built in Wuhan, the mayor may say “OK”, which means more than speech, and more than an average social individual may do for the construction. The judge’s imprisonment sentence, the president’s war or independence declaration, etc., are performatives as well(see J.Austin’s speech Act Theory, Hu Zhuanglin, ecal.,pp271-27 .

1.18.What is linguistics?
“Linguistics” is the scientific study of language. It studies not just one language of any one society, but the language of all human beings. A linguist, though, does not have to know and use a large number of languages, but to investigate how each language is constructed. He is also concerned with how a language varies from dialect to dialect, from class to class, how it changes from century to century, how children acquire their mother tongue, and perhaps how a person learns or should learn a foreign language. In short, linguistics studies the general principles whereupon all human languages are constructed and operate as systems of communication in their societies or communities (see Hu Zhuanglin et al.,pp20-22)

1.19.What makes linguistics a science?
Since linguistics is the scientific study of language, it ought to base itself upon the systematic, investigation of language data which aims at discovering the true nature of language and its underlying system. To make sense of the data, a linguist usually has conceived some hypotheses about the language structure, to be checked against the observed or observable facts. In order to make his analysis scientific, a linguist is usually guided by four principles: exhaustiveness, consistency, and objectivity. Exhaustiveness means he should gather all the materials relevant to the study and give them an adequate explanation, in spite of the complicatedness. He is to leave no linguistic “stone” unturned. Consistency means there should be no contradiction between different parts of the total statement. Economy means a linguist should pursue brevity in the analysis when it is possible. Objectivity implies that since some people may be subjective in the study, a linguist should be (or sound at least) objective, matter-of-face, faithful to reality, so that his work constitutes part of the linguistics research.

1.20.What are the major branches of linguistics?
The study of language as a whole is often called general linguistics (e.g.Hu Zhuanglin et al.,1988;Wang Gang,198 .But a linguist sometimes is able to deal with only one aspect of language at a time, thus the arise of various branches : phonetics ,phonology ,morphology, syntax, semantics, sociolinguistics, applied linguistics, pragmatics, psycholinguistics, lexicology, lexicography, etymology, etc.

1.21.What are synchronic and diachronic studies?
The description of a language at some point of time (as if it stopped developing) is a synchrony study (synchrony). The description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study (diachronic). An essay entitled “On the Use of THE”, for example, may be synchronic, if the author does not recall the past of THE, and it may also be diachronic if he claims to cover a large range or period of time wherein THE has undergone tremendous alteration (see Hu Zhuanglin et al.,pp25-27).


1.22.What is speech and what is writing?
(1)    No one needs the repetition of the general principle of linguistic analysis, namely, the primacy of speech over writing. Speech is primary, because it existed long long before writing systems came into being. Genetically children learn to speak before learning to write. Secondly, written forms just represent in this way or that the speech sounds : individual sounds, as in English and French as in Japanese.
(2)    In contrast to speech, spoken form of language, writing as written codes, gives language new scope and use that speech does not have. Firstly, messages can be carried through space so that people can write to each other. Secondly, messages can be carried through time thereby, so that people of our time can be carried through time thereby, so that people of our time can read Beowulf, Samuel Johnson, and Edgar A. Poe. Thirdly, oral messages are readily subject to distortion, either intentional or unintentional (causing misunderstanding or malentendu), while written messages allow and encourage repeated unalterable reading.
(3)    Most modern linguistic analysis is focused on speech, different from grammarians of the last century and theretofore.

1.23.What are the differences between the descriptive and the prescriptive approaches?
A linguistic study is “descriptive” if it only describes and analyses the facts of language, and “prescriptive” if it tries to lay down rules for  “correct” language behavior. Linguistic studies before this century were largely prescriptive because many early grammars were largely prescriptive because many early grammars were based on “high” (literary or religious) written records. Modern linguistics is mostly descriptive, however. It (the latter) believes that whatever occurs in natural speech (hesitation, incomplete utterance, misunderstanding, etc.) should be described in the analysis, and not be marked as incorrect, abnormal, corrupt, or lousy. These, with changes in vocabulary and structures, need to be explained also.

1.24.What is the difference between langue and parole?
F. de Saussure refers “langue”to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community and refers “parole” to the actual or actualized language, or the realization of langue. Langue is abstract, parole specific to the speaking situation; langue not actually spoken by an individual, parole always a naturally occurring event; langue relatively stable and systematic, parole is a mass of confused facts, thus not suitable for systematic investigation. What a linguist ought to do, according to Saussure, is to abstract langue from instances of parole, i. e. to discover the regularities governing all instances of parole and make than the subject of linguistics. The langue-parole distinction is of great importance, which casts great influence on later linguists.

1.25.What is the difference between competence and performance?
(1)    According to N. Chomsky, “competence” is the ideal language user’s knowledge of the rules of his language, and “performance” is the actual realization of this knowledge in utterances. The former enables a speaker to produce and understand an indefinite number of sentences and to recognize grammatical mistakes and ambiguities. A speaker’s competence is stable while his performance is often influenced by psychological and social factors. So a speaker’s performance does not always match or equal his supposed competence.
(2)    Chomsky believes that linguists ought to study competence, rather than performance. In other words, they should discover what an ideal speaker knows of his native language.
(3)    Chomsky’s competence-performance distinction is not exactly the same as , though similar to , F. de Saussure’s langue-parole distinction. Langue is a social product, and a set of conventions for a community, while competence is deemed as a property of the mind of each individual. Sussure looks at language more from a sociological or sociolinguistic point of view than N. Chomsky since the latter deals with his issues psychologically or psycholinguistically.

1.26.What is linguistic potential? What is actual linguistic behaviour?
These two terms, or the potential-behavior distinction, were made by M. A. K. Halliday in the 1960s, from a functional point of view. There is a wide range of things a speaker can do in his culture, and similarly there are many things he can say, for example, to many people, on many topics. What he actually says (i.e. his “actual linguistic behavior”) on a certain occasion to a certain person is what he has chosen from many possible injustice items, each of which he could have said (linguistic potential).

1.27.In what way do language, competence and linguistic potential agree? In what way do they differ? And their counterparts?
Langue, competence and linguistic potential have some similar features, but they are innately different (see 1.25). Langue is a social product, and a set of speaking conventions; competence is a property or attribute of each ideal speaker’s mind; linguistic potential is all the linguistic corpus or repertoire available from which the speaker chooses items for the actual utterance situation. In other words, langue is invisible but reliable abstract system. Competence means “knowing”, and linguistic potential a set of possibilities for “doing” or “performing actions”. They are similar in that they all refer to the constant underlying the utterances that constitute what Saussure, Chomsky and Halliday respectively called parole, performance and actual linguistic behavior. Paole, performance and actual linguistic behavior enjoy more similarities than differences.

Glossary and Index

Glossary and Index   A  B  C  D  E  F  G  H  I  J  K  L  M  N  O  P  Q  R  S  T  U  V  WXYZ    A abbreviation 缩写 3.3.1 Abercrombie 10.3.2 accent 口音 1.5.2 ; 2.2.3 accent 重音 1.5.2 ; 2.2.1; 2.2.3; 7.1.3 accusative 宾格 4.1.1; 4.3.3 acoustic phonetics 声学语音学 1.7.1 ;  2 acquisition 习得 6.2 acronym 缩略语 3.3.1 action process 动作过程 12.2.3 actor动作者 4.4.2;  12.2.3 addition 添加 3.2.4 ;  3.3.2 address form 称谓形式 7.2.3 adjective compound 形容词复合词 3.2.3 adjunct clause 附加语分句 4.2.4; 4.6.2 adjunct 修饰成分; 附加语 12.2.3 adverb 副词 3.1.2 adverbial clause 状语分句 4.2.4; 4.6 affected segment 承事音段 2.4.1 affective meaning 感情意义 5.1 affixation 词缀附加法 4.1.1; 7.1.4 affix词缀 3.2.1 affricate 塞擦音 2.2.1; 2.2.3; 2.4.1; 2.4.2; 2.4.3 agent施事;  施动 4.3.1 agreement 一致关系 4.3.1 airstream 气流 2.1.1 ; 2.2; 2.2.1; 2.3.1 alliteration 头韵 9.3.2 allomorph 语素变体 3.2.4 allophone 音位变体 2.3.3 allophonic variation 同音位变体 2.3.3 allophony 音位变体现象 2.3.3 alveolar (sound) 齿龈音 2.2.1 ; 2.2.3 alveolar ridge 齿龈 2.1.1; 2.2.1 ambiguity 歧义 8.2.2 ;  8.3.2 American descriptive linguistics 美国描写语言学 12.3 American English 美式英语 3.1.3 ; 2.2.1; 7.2.2; 10.3.5; 11.4 American functionalist 美国功能语言学家 1.3.1 ; 12.3 American Indian languages 美国印第安族诸语言 12.3 American structuralism 美国结构主义 10.3.2 ;   12.3 analogical creation 类推造字 3.3.1 anapest 抑抑扬格 9.3.3 anaphoric 前指的 4.4.4 animal communication system 动物交际系统 1.2;  1.3 animal language 动物语言 1.3 animate 有生命的 4.4.2 annotation 注解 10.3.4 ;   10.3.5 antecedent 先行词 4.4.4 anterior 龈前 2.4.3 anthropological linguistics 人类语言学 1.8.3 ;  7.1.1 anthropological study 人类学研究 7.1.1 anthropology 人类学 6.2 anticipatory coarticulation 先期协同发音 2.3.1 antonomasia 代类名 7.1.4 antonym 反义词 5.4 antonymy 反义（关系） 5.3.2 applied linguistics 应用语言学 11 applied sociolinguistics 应用社会语言学 7.2.4 approximant 近音 2.2.1; 2.2.3; 2.4.3 Apte 7;  7.2.1 Arabic 阿拉伯语 2.2.1; 3.3.1 arbitrariness 任意性 1.3.1 ;   12.0 argument 中项;  中词;  主目 5.5.2 arrangement  配列 12.4.1 article 冠词 3.1.2 ;  3.3.1;  4.4.1 articulator 发音器官 2.2.1 articulatory phonetics 发音语音学 1.7.1 ;  2 artificial speech 人工言语 10 aspect 体 4.1.2 aspirated sound 送气音 2.3.1; 2.3.2; 2.3.3 aspiration 送气 2.3.1; 2.3.3; 2.4.3 assimilation 同化(现象) 2.4.1; 3.2.4; 3.3.4 associative meaning 联想意义 5.1 associative relation 联想关系 4.5.2 assonance 准押韵 9.3. Atkinson, A.M. 2.1 audible friction 可闻摩擦 2.2; 2.2.1; 2.2.2 auditory phonetics 听觉语音学 1.7.1 ; 2 Austin, John Langshaw 1.5.3; 8.1 authentic input 真实输入 11.4.2 authorial style 作者风格 9.4.3 authoring program 编程 10.1 auto-hyponym 自我下义词 5.3.3 autonomy 自主性 1.8 auxiliary verb 助动词 3.1.3 ;  4.3.1;  12.2.3 auxiliary 助词 3.1.2 ;  3.1.3;   12.4.3   B babbling stage 婴儿语阶段 12.4.1 back 后(元音) 2.2.2; 2.2.3 back-formation 逆构词法 3.3.1 ballad 民谣 9.3.5 Bally, Charles 12.0 Bar Hillel 10.2.1 Barcelona 6.3.5 Barnhart & Barnhart 7.1.4 base component 基础部分 12.4.4 basic level 基础层 6.3.1 behaver 行为者 12.2.3 behavioural process 行为过程 12.2.3 behaviourism 行为主义 12.3.2 ;12.4.1 Berlin & Kay 7.1.2 Berns 7.2.4 Bernstein 12.2.3 Biber, et al. 10.3.3 biconditional 二重条件 5.5.2 bilabial (sound) 双唇音 2.2.1; 2.2.3 bilabial consonant 双唇辅音 2.2.1 bilateral opposition 双边对立 12.1.2 bilingualism 双语现象 7.2.3 binary division 二分法 4.5.3 binary feature 二分特征 2.4.3 binding theory 制约论 12.4.6 binding 制约 8.3.3 ;   12.4.6 Black English 黑人英语 1.1 blade舌叶 2.1.1; 2.2.1 blank verse 无韵诗 9.3.4 blending 混成法 3.3.1 ; 3.3.2; 6.3.6 blend合成空间 6.3.6 Bloch 12.3. blog博客 10.4.3 Bloom 7.1.3 Bloomfield, Leonard L.  3.1.2 ;  4.5.3;  12.3.2;  12.4.2 Boas, Franz 7.1.1 ;  12.2.3;  12.3.1 Bolinger 1.3.2 ;  4.5.3;  12.1.1 Bolton & Kwok 7.2.3 Bolton 7.2.2 borrowing 借用, 借词 3.3.1 bound morpheme 粘着语素 3.2.1 bounding theory 管辖理论 4.3.3;   12.4.6 bow-wow theory 摹声说 1.4 bracketing 括号法 4.2.2; 12.4.3 brevity maxim 简洁准则 8.3.2 British English 英式英语 3.1.3 ;  10.3.5; 11.4 broad transcription 宽式转写 2.3.1; 2.3.2 broadening 词义扩大 3.3.3 bronchi 支气管 2.1.1 bronchiole 细支气管 2.1.1 Brown corpus Brown语料库 10.3.2 Brown, Roger 6.2.1 Burke, Michael 9.6 Burton , Dolores Burton 9.1 Bygate, Skehan & Swain 11.4.3   C calculability 可推导性 8.2.3 calque  仿造词 3.3.1 cancellability 可取消性 8.2.3 cardinal vowel diagram 基本元音图 2.2.2 Cardinal Vowel, CV 基本元音 2.2.2; 2.2.3 Carter 8.2.1 Carter and Simpson 9.1;  case grammar 格语法 12.5.1 case marker 格标记 12.5.1 case theory 格理论 4.3.3;  12.4.6 case格 3.2.3 ;  4.3;  4.4.3;  12.5.1 categorization  范畴化 6.3.2 category 范畴 1.5.2 ;  3.3.1;  4.4;   10.3.5; 12.2.3;  12.4.6;  12.5.1 causative 使役的;  使役动词 8.3.2 CD-I, compact-disk interactive 交互式激光视盘 10.1.3 Cell 12.3.3 center 中心词 4.2.3 center-periphery schema 中心—边缘图式 6 central 央(元音) 2.2.2; 2.2.3 central determiner 中位限定词 3.1.3 chain system 链状系统 12.2.3 chatroom  谈话室 10.4.4 Chen 11.2 Chinese 汉语1.5.3;  2.2.1 ;  2.3.2; 2.5.1; 2.5.4;  3.3.1;  5.1;  5.3.3;  7.3.1;  8.1.2;  8.2;   12.2.3 Chinese character 汉字 2.5.4 Chinese Pinyin symbol 汉语拼音符号 2.3.2 choice relation 选择关系 4.1.2;  12.2.3 choice system 选择系统 12.2.3 Chomsky, No am 1.9.4 ;  4.2.2;  4.3; 4.3.3;  5.5;  6;  6.2;  7.2;  7.4;  10.3.2;  11.3.2; 12 circumstance 环境12.2.3 Clark & Yallop 2.4; 2.5.2 class shift 词性变换 3.3.3 classical theory 经典理论 12.4.1 ; 12.4.3 classification 分类 3.1.3 class词类 3.1.2 ;  4.3.4;  4.4;  4.5.3; 12.3.3 clause complex 小句复合体; 复句 3.1.1 clause 小句;  从句3.1.1;  4.2.4;  4.5 clear-l  清晰l  2.3.3 click 吸气音 2.1.2 clipping 截断法 3.3.1 close 闭(元音) 2.2.2 closed class 封闭类 3.1.3 closed syllable 闭音节 2.5.1 close-mid 闭中 2.2.2 cluster 音丛 2.5.1 coarticulation 协同发音 2.3.1; 2.3.2; 2.4.1 coda 节尾 2.5.1 ; 6.2.3 code语码 1.5;  3.1.2 ;  3.1.3 cognate 同源词 5.3.2 cognition 认知 6;  6.1 cognitive linguistics 认知语言学 6 cognitive metaphor 认知隐喻 9.6 cognitive psychology 认知心理学 6.2 cognitive system 认知系统 6.1;  12.4.2 coherence 连贯;  关联 12.2.3 cohesion 衔接 4.7.2; 12.3.3 co-hyponym 同下义词 5.3.3 colligation 类连结12.2.2 collocative meaning 搭配意义5.1; 12.2.2 color word system 色彩词系统7.1.2 command 指令1.5;  1.9.1 ;  4.5.3 common noun 普通名词 5.5.2 communication 交际1.1;  1.2;  1.5 communicative competence 交际能力1.9.4 ;  7.2.4;  11.3.1 communicative dynamism, CD交际性动力12.1.3 communicative language teaching, CLT交际语言教学11.3.1 communicative syllabus 交际教学大纲11.4.3 comparative degree 比较级  5.3.2 competence能力1.9.4 ;   12.4.1;   12.4.7 complement clause 补语分句 4.2.4; 4.6.2 complementary antonymy互补反义关系 5.3.2 ; 5.5.2 complementary distribution互补分布 2.3.3 complement补语 12.2.3 complex predicate 复杂谓词5.5.2 complex word 复合词3.1.2 componential analysis 成分分析5.4； 5.5.2 component成分1.1;  1.7.3 ;  3.2.1 composite proposition 复合命题5.5.2 compositionality 组合性5.5.1 compound 复合词;  复合句 2.5.2 ; 3.2.1;  3.2.3 computational linguistics 计算语言学1.8.4 ;   10 computer corpus 计算机语料库10.3.1 computer hardware 计算机硬件10.2.1 computer literacy 计算机操作能力10 computer networks 计算机网络10.1.3 computer science  计算机科学1.8.4 computer-assisted instruction, CAI计算机辅助教学10.1.1 computer-assisted language learning, CALL计算机辅助语言学习10.1 computer-assisted learning, CAL计算机辅助学习10.1.1 conative 意动功能1.5 concept 概念1.3.4 ;  5.2 conceptual approach 认知法 6.1 conceptual meaning 概念意义 5.1 conceptualization  概念化 7.1.1 concord 一致（关系） 4.4.4; 12.4.2 concordance 一致关系 10.3.3 conjunction 连接词; 连接 3.1.3 ;  4.2.2;  4.2.4;  4.5.1;  5.5.2 connective 连词 4.2.3 connotation 内涵 5.1; 5.2; 5.3.1 ;  8.3.3 connotative meaning 内涵意义5.1 consequent 后件5.5.2 consonance 辅音韵9.3.2 ;  9.3.6 consonant 辅音 2.1.1; 2.1.2; 2.2; 2.2.1; 2.2.2; 2.2.3; 2.3.1; 2.4.2; 2.4.3; 2.5.1 constant opposition 不变对立 12.1.2 constative 叙事句 8.1.1 constituent command 成分指令 4.3.3 constituent proposition 成分命题 5.5.2 constituent structure analysis 成分结构分析12.4.3 constituent 成分3.1.2;  4;  8.3.3 construal 识解 6.3.1 construction 构建 4.2 constructivism 构建主义 11.2.3 ; 11.4.3 contact assimilation 接触同化3.3.4 contact 接触1.5 containment schema 容器图式 6.3.3 content question 实意问句 4.3.1 content word 实义词 3.1.3 context of situation 语境7.1.1;  12.2.2 context 上下文1.4 context 语境1;  2.4.1; 7.1.1;  8;  9.2.2 contextual analyses 语境分析12.2.2 contextual meaning 语境意义8 contiguous assimilation 邻近同化3.3.4 contrast 对立 2.3.2 contrastive analysis 对比分析 11.5 contrastive sound 对立音 2.3.2 control theory 控制理论 4.3.3;   12.4.6 controlled language 有控制的语言 10.2.1 convention 常规;  规约 1.3.1 conventional meaning 常规意义;  规约意义 8.2.3 conventionality 规约性1.3.1 conversational implicature 会话含义8.2 conversational maxim 会话准则8.3.2;  9.5.1 converse antonymy 反向反义现象5.3.2 converse antonymy 逆向反义关系5.3.2 conversion 变换3.3.3; 7.1.4 co-occurrence 同现 4.1.3 Cook  11.1;11.3.2 cooperative principle, CP合作原则1.7.6;  8.2.1;  9.5.1 coordinate clause 并列从句 4.7 coordinating subject 并列主语 3.1.2 coordination 并列 4.2.4 Corder 11.5.2 coreferential 同指 8.3.3 coronal 舌冠(音) 2.1.1; 2.4.3 corpus (pl. corpora) 语料库 10.3.1 ;   10.3.5;   12.3.3 corpus data 语料库语料10.3.5 corpus linguistics 语料库语言学10.3;  11.5 count noun 可数名词 6.3.2 counterfactual proposition 反事实命题 5.5.2 couplet 对句;  对联 9.3.4 creativity 创造性;  原创性 1.3.2 Creole 克里奥尔语;  混合语 7.2.3 Croft 6.3.5 Croft and Cruse 6.3.1 Croft and Wood 6.3.1 cross-cultural communication 跨文化交际 7;  7.3.1 cross-space mapping 跨空间映射 6.3.6 Crutterden 2.5.3 Crystal, David 1.5.2 ; 1.5.4;  1.5.5; 2;  7.1.1 Culler 12.0 culturally-specific 文化色彩7.1.3 culture文化7;  12.2.2 ;  12.3.1 curriculum 课程计划11.4 customizing 定制10.1.3 cycle schema 循环图式 6.3.3   D dactyl 扬抑抑格 9.3.3 Dani language 丹尼语 7.1.2 dark-l  模糊l  2.3.3 Darnell 7.1.1 Darwin, Charles 6.2.1 database 数据库 10.2.5 dative (case) 与格 4.1.1;  4.3.1; 4.3.3 dative movement 与格移动 4.3.1 declarative 陈述句 4.5.3 decoding 解码 8.3.1 deductive 演绎12.4.7 deep structure 深层结构11.3.2;  12.4.4 defeasibility 可取消性8.2.3 definite article 定冠词3.1.3 definite 有定的3.1.3 ;  4.3.3 degenerate data 无用的语料 12.4.1 deixis 指称 6.3.1; 9.4.1 DeKeyser 11.2 deletion rule 删除规则 12.4.5 denotation 外延;  所指 5.1;  8.3.3 dental (sound) 齿音 2.2.1; 2.2.3 dentalization 齿音化 2.3.1; 2.4.1 derivation 派生 2.4.2;  3.2.3; 7.1.4 derivational affix 派生词缀3.2.2 derivational morphology 派生形态学3.2.3 description 描写1.9.1;   11.4 descriptive adequacy 描写充分性12.4.2 descriptive linguistics 描写语言学1.8;  12.4 design feature 设计特征1.3 determiner 限定词3.1.3 ;  4.1.3;  4.2.1;  4.2.2  de-verbal 动词派生 3.2.3 deviant 变体9.2.1 deviation 偏离;  变异 1.9.4 ;  9.2 devoicing 清音化 2.3.1; 2.4.1 diachronic linguistics 历时语言学 12 diachronic 历时的1.9.2;  8.3.2; 12.0 diacritic 变音符(号) 2.1.2; 2.2.3; 2.3.1; 2.3.3 dialect 方言 1.1;  1.5.2 ; 2.3.3 dialectal difference 方言差异 2.5.2 dialectology 方言学 7.2.2 ;  10.3.5 dialogue 对话 9.5.2 dictionary 词典 2.3.2; 2.3.3; 5.5.1;   10.3.5 digitized sound 数字化语音10.1.3 dimetre 二音步诗行 9.3.3 diphthong 二合元音，双元音 2.2.2; 2.2.3 direct object 直接宾语 4.3.3;  9.2.1 direct speech, DS直接言语9.4.2 direct thought, DT直接思想9.4.2 directionality 方向性7.1.4 discourse analysis 语篇分析;  话语分析 4.7; 7.2.3 ;  9.1;  9.5.1;  12.2.3 discourse interpretation 语篇理解 6.3 discovery procedure 发现程序12.3.3 discrete 分离的;  离散的 1.3.2 disjunction 析取连词5.5.2 disorder 紊乱 6.2 displacement 移位 1.3.2 dissimilation 异化（作用） 3.2.4 distinctive feature 区别特征 2.4.3;  12.1.2 distinguisher 辨义成分5.5.1 distribution 分布3.1.3;  12.3.3 dorsal 舌面（音） 2.1.1 ; 2.4.3 double comparative 双重比较 3.2.3 Doughty 11.4.1 Downes 7.1.1 download 下载10.2.4 drama戏剧9.4.2; 9.5 drill-and-practice software 操练软件10.1.3 dualistic view 二分观点7.2.1 duality 二层性1.3.2 dual双数 4.1.1 Durkheim,E. 12.0   E early Modern English 早期现代英语9.5.2 economy 经济原则8.3.2 EFL作为外语的英语1.9.4 ejective 挤喉音 2.1.2 electronic mail 电子邮件 10.2.4 Elizabethan English 伊利莎白时期英语 9.5.1 ellipsis 省略（法） 4.7.2;  12.4.3 elliptical sentence structure 省略的句子结构 9.4.2 Ellis, J. 2.5.2;  11.1;  11.2 Elsewhere Condition 剩余位置条件 2.4.2; 2.4.3 embedded element 嵌入成分 9.2.1 embedding 包孕; 嵌入 4.6 emergent structure 层创结构;  层创空间 6.3.6 emoticon 表情符号 10.4.5 emotive 感情的 1.5;  4.4.2; 5.1 empirical data 实证数据 10.3.5 empiricism 经验主义 12.4.1 empty category, EC空语类 12.4.6 encoding 编码 8.3.1 end rhyme 末端韵 9.3 endocentric compound 向心复合词 3.2.3 endocentric construction 向心结构 4.2.3 entailment 衍推 5.4;  8.2.3 entry condition 入列条件 12.2.3 Environment 环境 2.4.1 epenthesis, insertion 增音 2.4.2 equipollent opposition 等价对立 12.1.2 error analysis 错误分析 11.5 ethnography of communication 交际民族学 7.1.1 European languages 欧洲语言 1.9.1 ; 12.3.1 evolutionary theory 进化理论 7.1.2 example-based machine translation 基于例句的机器翻译10.2.2 exchange structure 交换结构9.5.2 existent 存在物12.2.3 existential process 存在过程12.2.3 existential quantifier 存在量词5.5.2 existential 存在句 4.4.2 exocentric construction 离心结构 4.2.3;  4.3.3 experiential function 经验功能 12.2.3 explanatory adequacy 解释充分性12.4.2 expression minimization 表达式最小化8.3.3 extended standard theory, EST扩展标准理论12.4.5 extensive 引申的;  扩展的 12.2.3   F falling tone 降调 2.5.3 fall-rise tone 降-升调型 2.5.3 Fasold  7.1.1 ; 7.2.2;  7.2.3; 7.2.4 Fauconnier & Turner 6.3.6 Fauconnier 6.3.6 feedback 反馈 10.4.2 felicity condition 合适条件8.1.1 feminine 阴性 4,4,2; 10.3.5 fiction 小说 9.4;   9.5.1 figurative language 比喻语言 9.2.2 figure and ground 图形和背景9.6 Fillmore, C.J. 12.5.1 finite state grammar 有限状态语法12.4.3 finite verb 限定动词 9.2.1 finite 限定的 4.5.2;  12.2.3 Finnish 芬兰语 4.4.3 Firbas, J. 12.1.3 Firth, J. R. 7.1.1 ;   12.2; 12.2.2 Firthian phonology 弗斯音系学12.2.3 Fishman 7.1.1 ;  7.3.1 flap 闪音 2.2.1 focus bar 焦点线 2.4.1 Fodor 5.5.2 folk etymology 俗词源3.3.3 foot音步9.3.3 force schema 力图式 6.3.3 foregrounded features 突出特征 9.6 foregrounding 突出;  前景化 9.2 foreign languge teaching 外语教学 11 foreign word 外来词 2.2.1 formal approach 形式法 6.1 formal difference 形式差异 12.3.1 formalisation 形式化 12.3.3 ;   12.4.7 formalism 形式主义9.1 Fowler 1.9.2 free form自由形式3.1.2 free indirect speech, FIS自由间接言语9.4.2 free indirect thought, FIT自由间接思维9.4.2 free morpheme 自由语素3.2.1 ;  4.3.1 free root morpheme 自由词根语素 3.2.2 free variant 自由变体 2.3.3 free variation 自由变体 2.3.3 free verse 自由体诗 9.3.4 ;  9.3.5 French 法语 French 法语 2.2.1 ; 3.3;  4.4.1;  4.4.2;  6.2.3;  9.5.1;  10.2.3;  10.4.1 Freud 12.0 fricative （摩）擦音 2.2.1; 2.2.3; 2.4.1; 2.4.2; 2.4.3 friction 摩擦 2.2; 2.2.1 front 前(元音) 2.2.2; 2.2.3 fully automatic highquality translation, FAHQT全自动高质量翻译 10.2.1 function word 功能词 3.1.2; 3.1.3 function 功能1.5;  4.2.1;  4.3.3; 4.4;  12.1.1 functional grammar 功能语法1.5; 11.3.3 ;  12.2.3 functional linguistics 功能语言学11.2.4 functional sentence perspective, FSP功能句子观12.1.3 functional view of language  功能语言观11.4.1 functionalist 功能主义者1.3.1 fusion 熔合3.3.1; 3.3.2 fuzzy category 模糊10.3.5   G Gao  7.1.5 Garrett   7.2.2 ;   10.1.3 Gass & Selinker 11.5.1 Geertz  7.2. gender difference 性别差异7.2.2 ; 7.2.3 gender  4.4.2;  10.3.5;  12.2.2 General American, GA 普通美语 2.2.3; 2.5.2; 7.1.3 general linguistics 普通语言学 12.3.3 general ordinal  一般序列词 3.1.3 generalisation 概括1.3.2 ;  12.2.2;  12.3.3;  12.5.2 generative grammar 生成语法12.2.2 ;  12.4.2 generative semantics 生成语义学  12.5.2 generic space 类属空间 6.3.6 genre体裁;  语类 9.4.1; 10.3.5 German 德语3.1.2; 3.1.3; 10.2.3; 12.1.2 gerundial phrase 动名词式短语 4.5.2 gestalt 完形 6.3.2 gesture 音姿 2.2.1 Gilmore, Dan 10.4.3 Gimson 2.5.2 glottal (sound) 喉音 2.2.1 glottal (sound) 声门音 2.2.1; 2.2.3 glottal fricative 喉擦音 2.2.1 glottal fricative 声门擦音 2.2.1 glottal stop 声门塞音 2.1.1 glottalization 声门化 2.3.1 glottis 声门 2.1.1 ; 2.1.2 goal目标 12.2.3 government and binding 管辖与约束 12.4.6 government theory 管辖理论 12.4.6 gradable antonymy 等级反义关系5.3.2 grading 分级11.4.2 gradual opposition 渐次对立12.1.2 grammar translation method 语法翻译法11.4.3 grammar 语法3.1.1;  3.1.3;  5.5;  11.1;  12.4.2 grammatical analysis 语法分析 4.4.1 grammatical category 语法范畴 12.3.3 grammatical concept 语法概念12.3.1 grammatical construction 语法结构 4.2.1 grammatical description 语法描写 12.4.3 grammatical form 语法形式3.1.3 ;  9.2.1;  11.4.3 grammatical function 语法功能 2.5.2 ;  4.2.3;  4.5.2; 4.6.2; 6.2.3 grammatical gender 语法性别 4.4.2 grammatical marker 语法标记 5.5.1 grammatical process 语法过程12.3.1 grammatical sentence pattern (GSP) 语法句型12.1.3 grammatical structure 语法结构12.1.3;  12.3.1 grammatical subject 语法主语 4.3.1; 4.3.2;  12.1.3 grammatical syllabus 语法教学大纲11.4.3 grammatical system 语法系统12.2.3;  12.3.1 grammatical unit 语法单位3.1.1 grammatical word 语法词3.1.3 ; 9.4.2 graphic change 文字变化3.3.4 graphic form 文字形式3.3.5 Greek希腊语3.3.1 ;  4.4.3;  7.2.2 Greenberg, et al. 7.1.2 Gregersen 7.2.2 Grice, Herbert Paul 8;  9.5.2 Gricean maxim, Grice 准则8.3.1;  9.4.2   H half-rhyme 半韵 9.3.2 Hall, R. 2.11;   12.3.3 Halle , Morris 12.5.1 Halliday, M.A.K.  1.5;  4.3.3;  7.1.1;   12.2;  12.2.3 hard palate 硬腭 2.1.1 ; 2.2.1 Harris & Taylor 7.2.1 Harris, Z.S. 12.3.3 Hartley 1.8 Hatzfeld, Helmet 9.1 Hauser, Chomsky, & Fitch 7.1.2 ;   7.4 head中心词;  中心成分3.1.3; 4.2.3;  4.2.4 heptameter 七音步诗行 9.3.3 heuristic function 推究性（语言）功能12.2.3 hierarchical system 等级系统12.2.3 hierarchy 等级体系1.3.2 ;  3.1.1;  3.1.2 Higgins 10.1.3 high高（元音） 2.2.2;  2.2.3 Hill, A. 12.3.3 historical linguistics 历史语言学1.9.2 ;  10.3.5 Hjelmslev 4.1.2 Hockett, Charles  3;  12.3.3 Holmes 10.3.5 holophrastic stage 单词句阶段 6.2; 12.4.1 homonym 同音/形异义词 12.2.1 Hook 7.3.1 Hopi豪皮语7.1.1;  7.1.2 horizontal relation 链状关系 4.1.1 Horn, Lawrence 8.3.2 Householder 8.3.2 Hu 11.2 human cognitive system 人类认知系统12.4.2 human language 人类语言1.3;  12.3.1 ;  12.4 human translation 人工翻译10.2 Humboldt, Wilhelm 1.9.4 ;  7.1.1 Hutchins 10.1.3 Hymes, D.H. 1.9.3 ;  1.9.4;  7.1.1;  7.2.2;  11.2.5;   11.3.3 hyponymy 上下义关系5.3.3 ;  5.4 hypotactic  主从的 4.6 hypothesis-deduction 假设—演绎 12.4.2   I iamb抑扬格 9.3.3 IC analysis 直接成分分析法 4.2.2;   12.4.2 ICALL (intelligent CALL) 智能计算机辅助语言学习 10.1.2 ICM, idealized cognitive model  理想化认知模式6.3.5 ideational（function）概念功能1.5;  12.2.3 identifying 认同的12.2.3 identity 认同;  身份 1.5.2 idiom成语;  习语 2.1.3;  10.3.5 I-Heuristic 信息探索法8.3.2 Ill-formed sentences 不合适的句子12.4.4 illocutionary act 行事行为;  施为性行为8.1.2 illocutionary force 行事语力8.1.2 image schema 意象图式 6.3.3;  9.6 imaginative（function）想象功能1.5;   12.2.3 immersion 沉浸法11.2 imperative rule 祈使规则12.5.3 imperative 祈使语气;  命令的 4.4.2 implied meaning 隐含意义 8.2.1 implosive 内破音 2.1.2 inanimate 无生命的 4.4.2 I-narrator (first-person narrator) 第一人称叙述者 9.4.1 inclusiveness relation 内包关系5.3 indefinite article 不定冠词 2.4.2 ;  3.1.3 indicative 陈述式;  陈述语气 4.5.3 indirect object 间接宾语 4.3.3;  12.1.3 indirect speech, IS间接言语 9.4.2 indirect thought, IT间接思维 9.4.2 individual difference 个人差异 2.3.3 Indo-European languages 印欧语言 3.1.3 inference drawing 推论 6.3.1 inference 推理 1.8.4;  5.5.2;  6.3.1;  8.3.1;  9.4.4 inferential communication 推理交际 8.3.1 infinitive phrase 不定式短语 4.5.2 infinitive 不定式 1.9.1 ;  3.1.2;  4.1.2 infix中缀 3.2.1 inflecting language 屈折语言 4.3.3 inflection 屈折（变化） 3.1.3 ;  3.2.2;  4.3.3; 4.4.3 inflectional affix 屈折词缀 3.2.2 ;  3.2.3; 3.3.2 inflectional morphology 屈折形态学3.2.3 inflective change 屈折变化3.1.3 inflective endings 屈折结尾3.1.3 informative (function)信息功能1.5.1 ;   12.2.3 Ingr am 7.3.1 initial consonant 声母 2.2.1 innateness hypothesis 天赋假设 12.4.1 innateness 天赋, 先天性 12.4.1 ;  12.4.7 input hypothesis 输入理论11.2.2 input输入10.4.2;  11.2.2 ;  11.3.2;  12.4.1 instrumental (function) 工具功能1.4;  12.2.3 integration theory  整合理论 6.3.6 interactional (function)交互功能 1.5.4 ;  12.2.3 interface 界面1.8.4 interjection 感叹词1.4;  3.1.3 ;  9.5.1 interlanguage 中介语11.2.2 ;  11.4.3;  11.5.2 interlingua 国际语10.2.2 interlingual approach 语际法10.2.2 internal rhyme 行内韵9.3.1 internal structure 内部结构1.3.2 International Phonetic Alphabet, IPA 国际音标 2.1.2; 2.2.1; 2.3.2; 2.4.3; 2.5.4 International Phonetic Association, IPA 国际语音学会 2.1.2 internet 互联网 10.2.4 interpersonal function 人际功能1.5;  12.2.3 intonation 语调 2.1.2; 2.5; 2.5.3 intonation group 语调群 2.5.3 intra-cultural communication 内文化交际 7.3.1 intra-linguistic relation 语言内关系 5.3 intransitive 不及物的 4.3.2 invariable word 不变词 3.1.2 invention 发明法 3.3.1 inversion 倒装 3.1.3 IPA chart 国际音标表 2.1.2 ; 2.2.1; 2.2.2; 2.2.3; 2.3.1 irony讽刺;  反话 9.4.2 isolated opposition 孤立对立 12.1.2 Italian 意大利语 3.3.1   J Jakobson 1.5 Jakobson, Roman 1.5;  2.4.3;  4.4.2 Japanese 日语 3.3.4 ; 10.2.3 jargon 黑话;  行语1.1 Javanese 爪哇语7.2.2 Jesperson, Otto  2.1.2;  7.2.2 Johnson & Johnson 10 Johnson, Mark 6.3.3;  6.4 Jones, Daniel  7.1.3 jussive 弱祈使句 4.5.3   K Kaplan 7.1.3 Katz & Fodor 5.5.1 Katz & Portal 5.5.1 Katz, John 4.3.2;  5.5.1 Kay, Paul 7.1.2 ;   10.2.3 Kenyon, J.S. 2.5.3 kernel sentence 核心句 12.4.3 King's/Queen's English 国王(女王)英语 2.2.3 Knott, T. A. 2.5.3 knowledge-based approach 基于知识的方法 10.2.2 known information 已知信息 12.1.3 Krashen 11.2.2   L label标示;  标记 4.2.2 labial 唇音 2.4.3 labiodental (sound) 唇齿音 2.2.1 ; 2.2.3 Labov, Willi am 7.2.2 ;  7.2.2 Ladefoged 2.4; 2.5.3 Lakoff & Johnson 7.1.3 ;  6.3.1; 6.3.4 Lakoff & Turner, 6.3.1 Lakoff 6.3.1; 6.3.4; 7.2.2;  12.5.1 Lamb, Sydney 12.3.3 landmark 路标 9.6.1 Langacker 6.3.1 language acquisition device, LAD语言习得机制 12.4.1 language acquisition 语言习得 6.2.1;  11.2 language attitude 语言态度 7.2.3 language choice 语言选择7.2.3 language community 语言社团1.9 language comprehension 语言理解 6.2.2;  3.1;  6.4 language learning 语言学习 1.2;  11;  7.2.4 language maintenance 语言维护 7.2.3 language planning 语言规划 7.2.3 language processing 语言加工 6.3.1;  6.4 language production  语言产生 6.2.3 language shift 语言流变 7.2.3 language standardization 语言标准化 7.2.3 language system 语言系统 2; 2.3.2; 12.4.1;  12.2.3;  12.3.3;  12.4.1 language teaching 语言教学7.1.6 ;  7.2.4;  11;   12.2.3;   12.3.2 language use 语言使用7.1;  7.2 language variety  语言变体1.8.2 langue 语言（系统）1.9.3 ;  8.3.2; 12 Lao Zi 5 larynx 喉 2.1.1 lateral 边音 2.2.1; 2.2.3 lateral approximant 边近音 2.2.1; 2.3.3 lateral fricative 边擦音 2.2.1 Latin grammar 拉丁语法 1.9.1 ;  4.1.2;  4.3.1; 4.4.2 Latin拉丁语 1.7.3 ;  3.1.3; 3.3.1;  4.3.1;  4.2.3;  4.4.2 lax 松(元音) 2.2.3 Leech & Short 9.2 Leech, G. 5.1;   9.2; 10.3.2 ;   10.3.4 Lehman 11.1 length 长度;  音长 2.2.3 Lepschy, G.C.  12.3.3 letter 字母 2.1.2 Levey & Harris 7.1.3 Levinson, Stephen  8.3.3 lexeme 词位;  词素 3.2.2 lexical ambiguity 词汇歧义 6.2.2 lexical change 词汇变化 3.3 lexical collocation 词汇搭配 4.7.2 lexical meaning 词汇意义 3.1.2 ;  3.2.4 lexical morphology 词汇形态学 3.2.3 lexical repetition 词汇重复 4.7.2 lexical studies 词汇研究 10.3.5 lexical word 词汇词 3.1.3 lexicogrammar 词汇语法1.1;   12.2.3 lexicon 词汇;  词典3;  12.4.4 ;  12.5.2 lexis词9.2.3 ;   9.4.4 liaison 连读3.1.1 linguisic universality 语言普遍性7.1.2 linguistic behaviour potential 语言行为潜势12.2.3 linguistic competence 语言能力11.3.2 ;   12.4.2 linguistic context 语言语境;  上下文 12.2.2 linguistic description 语言描写12.3.2 ;   12.4.3 linguistic determinism 语言决定论7.1.1 linguistic facts 语言事实12.4 linguistic relativity 语言相对主义7.1.1 linguistic sexism 语言性别歧视7.2.2 linguistic structure 语言结构12.2.3 ;   12.3.1 linguistic unit 语言单位12.2.3 linguistic variation 语言变异7.2.2 ;  7.2.3 linguistics 语言学1;  11;  12 link schema  连接图式 6.3.3 lip 唇 2.2.1; 2.4.3 lip-rounding 唇的圆展 2.2.2 literal language 本义语言 9.2.2 literal meaning  本义9.2.2 literary stylistics 文学文体学9.2 loan translation 翻译借词3.3 loanblend 混合借词3.3.1 loanshift 转移借词3.3.1 loanword 借词3.3.1 local area networks, LAN局域网10.1.3 locutionary act 发话行为8.1.2 logical component 逻辑成分12.4.4 logical connective 逻辑连词5.5.2 logical form representation 逻辑式表达12.4.4 logical formula 逻辑公式5.5.2 logical function 逻辑功能12.2.3 logical semantics 逻辑语义学5.5.2 logical structure 逻辑结构5.5.2 logical subject 逻辑主语 4.3.1 logic逻辑 5.3.1 London School 伦敦学派7.1.1 ; 12.2 Long & Robinson 11.2 Long 11.4.3 long 长(元音) 2.2.3 long vowel 长元音 3.2.4;  3.3.2 loss of sound 语音脱落 3.3.4 low 低(元音) 2.2.2; 2.2.3 low central vowel 低央元音 2.2.3 lower jaw 下颚 2.1.1 lower lip 下唇 2.1.1; 2.2.1 lower teeth 下齿 2.1.1; 2.2.1 lung 肺 2.1.1 Luo Changpei 12.2.3 Lyons, John  1.5.1 ; 1.6;  5.5.2;  12.5.1 Lyric 1.5.6   M M.E.中世纪英语 3.3.2 machine translation, MT 机器翻译1.8.4 ;   10.2;   12.2.3 MacMahon 2.1;  2.2.2 macrolinguistics 宏观语言学 1.8 main clause 主句12.2.3 Malinowski, Bronislaw 1.5.5 ;  7.1.1;  9.2.1;  12.1.1; 12.2.2 mandible 下颌 2.1.1 man-machine symbiosis 人机共生 10.2.1 manner maxim 方式准则 8.2.1 ; 8.3.2; 9.4.2 manner of articulation 发音方式 2.1.2; 2.2.1; 2.2.3; 2.4.3 mapping 映射 6.1; 6.3;  12.5.2 marked 标记的 2.4.3; 5.3.2;  8.3.2;  8.3.3;  9.2.1;   10.3.5 masculine 阳性 4.4.2; 10.3.5 mass noun 物质名词 6.3.2 material (process)物质过程 12.2.3 Mathesius, V. 12.1.1 maximal onset principle 最大节首原则 2.5.1 McArthur, Tom 10.3.1 McCarthy & Carter, 11.1; 11.3.1 McCawley, J. 8.3.2;   12.5.1. McDonough 11.1 meaning potential 意义潜势7.1.1 ;  12.2.3 meaning shift 词义转移3.3.3 meaning-focused 关注意义的11.2 meaning意义1.1;  1.5;  5;  5.1;  8;  12 Mendoza , Ruiz de 6.3.5 mental (process)心理过程 6.1;  12.2.3 mentalism 心灵主义12.4.7 message 信息1.5;  9.4.1 Mesthrie 7.2.2 metafunction 元功能12.2.3 ;  5.4 metalanguage 元语言5.4 metaphor 隐喻 6.1; 6.3.3; 6.3.4;  7.1.3;  9.2.2 metathesis 换位（作用）3.3.4 metonymy 换喻;  转喻 6.3.5;  9.2.2 metre韵律9.3 metrical patterning 韵律格式9.3.3 M-Heuristic 方式探索法8.3.2 microcomputer 微机10 microprocessor 微处理器10 mid 中(元音) 2.2.3 mid central vowel 中央元音 2.2.2 mid-high 中高(元音) 2.2.2 mid-low 中低(元音) 2.2.2 Milroy 7.2.2 mind思维 6 minimal pairs (test) 最小对比对(测试) 2.3.2 minimalist program 最简方案12.4;  12.4.6 minimum free form 最小的自由形式3.1.2 modal subject 语气主语 4.4.2 modal verb 情态动词 12.2.3 modality 情态12.2.3 modern English 现代英语9.5.1 modern French 现代法语9.5.1 modification 修饰 4.5.1;  6.4 modifier 修饰语 4.2.4 monophonemic 单音位的 3.2.4 monophthong 单元音 2.2.2 monosyllabic (word) 单音节(词) 2.5.1 ; 2.5.2;  3.2.4 Montague Grammar 蒙太古语法 5.5.2 mood语气 4.4.2;  8.1.1;   12.2.3 morpheme 语素;  词素;  形素1.3.1 ;  1.3.2;  1.7.3;  1.7.4; 3.1.1;  3.1.3;  3.2.4;  4;  4.3.1;  12.3.3 morphemic shape 语素形式 3.2.4 morphological change 形态变化3.3.3 morphology 形态学1.7.3 ;  3.1.3; 3.2.1;  3.2.3;  3.2.4 morphophonemics 形态音位学3.2.4 morphophonology 形态音系学3.2.4 morpho-syntactical change 形态句法变化3.3.2 morph形素;  语素形式 12.3.3 mother tongue 母语;  本族语 7.1.2 motivation 动因7.1.4 ; 11.4.4 mouth 口 2.1.1 MT quality 机译质量 10.2.3 multilateral opposition 多边对立12.1.2 multilingualism 多语制;  多语现象 7.2.3 multimodal  多模式1.2 multi-syllabus 多元大纲1.4.3   N narratee 被叙述者 9.4.1 narrator 叙述者9.4.1 narrator’s representation of thought acts, NRTA叙述者对思维的行为表达9.4.2 narrator’s representation of thought, NRT叙述者对思维的表达9.4.2 narrow transcription 严式转写 2.3.1; 2.3.3 narrowing 词义缩小 3.3.3 nasal (sound) 鼻音 2.1.1; 2.2.1; 2.2.3; 2.3.1; 2.4.2, 2.4.3; 2.5.1 nasal cavity 鼻腔 2.1.1; 2.2; 2.2.1; 2.3.1 nasal consonant 鼻辅音 2.3.1 nasal stop 鼻腔塞音 2.2.1 nasality 鼻音性 2.3.1 nasalization 鼻音化 2.3.1; 2.4.1 nasalized sound 鼻化音 2.4.3 Nash, Walter 9.5.3 natural gender 自然性别 4.4.2 natural grammar 自然语法 12.2.3 natural language自然语言 5.5.2 naturalistic data 自然语料 10.3.5 negation 否定;  否定结构 3.1.2 ;  3.3.2; 5.5.2;  8.3.2;   12.4.3 negative marker 否定标记3.1.3 neogrammarian 新语法学家12.0 network computer 网络计算机10.2.4 neuter 中性 4.4.2 neutralizable opposition 中和对立 12.1.2 new information 新信息9.4.1 new stylistics 新文体学9.1 Nida, Eugene 1.5.4 ;  7.1.1;  7.1.3;  7.1.5 no audible release 无可闻除阻 2.3.3 nominal clause 名词性分句 4.6 nominal group 名词词组 3.1.2 nominative 主格 4.1.1;  4.3.1 non-conventionality 非常规性 8.2.3 non-detachability 不可分离性8.2.3 non-finite 无定的 4.5.2 non-linguistic entity 非语言实体 5.3 non-pulmonic sound 非肺气流音 2.1.2 nonverbal cues 非言语提示 1.2 norm规范 5.3.2 nose 鼻 2.1.1 notional word 实词 2.5.2 noun compound  名词复合词 3.2.3 noun phrase 名词短语 4.2.2;  4.3.1 noun名词 3.1.1 ;  4.2.1;  12.2.3;  12.4.4;   12.4.5 novel小说 9.4.1 nucleus 节核 2.5.1 number system 数系统 12.2.3 number  数 3.2.3 ; 4.4.1 Nunan 11.2.3 ; 11.4.1; 11.4.3   O O.E. 古英语 3.3 O’Barr & Atkins 7.2.4 object 宾语4.1.1;  4.2.1; 4.3.1; 4.3.3 objective case 宾格 3.3.2 obligatory 强制性 12.3.3 ;   12.4.3 observational adequacy 观察充分性 12.4.2 obstruction of air 气流阻碍 2.2; 2.2.1 obstruent 阻塞音 2.4.3 OCR scanner OCR扫描仪（光学字符阅读器扫描仪） 10.2.1 octametre 八音步诗行 9.3.3 Odlin 11.5 Ogden & Richards 5.1; 5.2;  6.3.5 Ogden 5.1 Ohmann 11.2.3 one-place predicate 一元谓词5.5.2 on-line translation 在线翻译10.2.4 onomatopoeia 拟声词1.3.1 ;  1.4;  9.3.5 onset节首 2.5.1 ontological metaphor 本体隐喻;  实体隐喻 6.3.4 open 开(元音) 2.2.2 open class 开放类 3.1.3 open syllable 开音节 2. 5.1 open-mid 开中(元音) 2.2.2 operative 操作的 12.2.3 oppositeness relation 对立关系5.3 opposition 对立12.1.2 optative 祈愿句 4.5.3 optimal relevance 最适宜关联 8.3.1 option 选择 12.2.3 optional 可选择的12.3.3; 12.4.3 oral cavity 口腔 2.1.1; 2.2; 2.2.1; 2.3.2 oral stop 口腔塞音 2.2.1 oral vowel 口腔元音 2.3.1 ordinal numeral 序数词 3.1.3 orientational metaphor 方位隐喻 6.3.4 origin of language 语言起源 1.4 orthographic 拼写 3.3.4 orthography 正字法 2.3.1; 6.2.2 ostensive communication 直示交际  8.3.1 overgeneralization 过度法则化 3.3.1 ; 11.5.2 Oxford English 牛津英语 2.2.3 oxymoron 矛盾修饰法 9.2.2   P palatal (sound) 硬腭音 2.2.1; 2.2.3 palatal fricative 硬腭擦音 2.2.1 palate 上颚 2.1.1; 2.2.1 palato-alveolar (sound) 腭龈音 2.2.1 Palmer 7.1.1 Panther & Thornburg 6.3.5 paradigm 聚合体 3.2.3 paradigmatic relation 聚合关系 4.1.2; 4.1.3;  12.0;  12.2.2;  12.2.3 paraphrase 释义;  意译5.1;  9.5.3 ;  pararhyme  头尾韵9.3.2 paratactic  并列的 4.6 parole 言语 1.9.3 ;  8.3.2; 12.0 part of speech 词类3.1.3;  4.1;  10.3.3 participant 参与者11.3.2 ;   12.2.3 participial phrase 分词式短语 4.5.2 particle 小品词;  语助词 3.1.3 ;  12.4.3 particular grammar 特定语的语法12.4.2 partitive 部分3.1.3 part-whole schema 部分—整体图式 6.3.3 passive (voice)被动语态 4.3.1;  4.3.3;  12.4.3;   12.4.4 passive transformation 被动转换 4.3.3;  12.4.3 past tense form  过去时形式 2.4.3 path schema  路径图式 6.3.3 patient 受事 4.3.1 pattern 模式 9.4.4 pause停顿3.1.1;  3.1.2;  6.4.1 peak 韵峰 2.5.1 pentameter 五音步 9.3.3 perceptual phonetics 感知语音学 2 performance 语言运用 1.5.3 ;  1.7.5;  1.7.6;  1.9.4 performative (verb)施为性动词1.5.3 ;  8.1.1;  8.1.2 performative 施为句8.1.1 perlocutionary act 取效行为8.1.2 perseverative coarticulation 后滞协同发音 2.3.1 person system 人称系统 7.3.1 ; 12.2.3 person 人称3.2.3 ;  7.3.2;  9.4.1 personal (function)自指性功能1.5;   12.2.3 personal function 个人功能1.5.2 ; 12.2.3 pharyngeal 咽音 2.2.1 pharyngeal 咽音 2.2 pharynx 咽(腔) 2.1.1; 2.2.1 phatic (communion)寒暄交谈;  交感性谈话 1.5;  12.2.1 philosophy 哲学 12.4.1 phone 音子 2.3.3 phonematic unit 音声单位 12.2.2 phoneme 音位 1.7.2 ;  2.3.2; 2.3.3; 2.4.3; 3.2.4;  6.2.2;  12.1.2;  12.2.2;  12.3.3;  12.5.2 phonemic 音位性的 2.3.2 phonemic analysis 音位分析 1.9.5 ; 12.2.2 phonemic transcription 音位转写 2.3.2 phonetic alphabet 音标 2.1.2;  2.3.2 phonetic similarity 发音近似性 2.3.3 phonetic symbol 音标，语音符号 2.1.2; 2.3.2 Phonetic Teachers' Association 语音教师协会 2.1.2 phonetic transcription 语音转写 2.1.2; 2.2.3; 2.3.1; 2.3.2; 2.3.3; 2.5.2 phonetician 语音学家 2.3.2 phonetics 语音学 1.7.1 ;  2; 2.1.2 ; 2.3.1;  12.1.2 phonological change  音位变化；语音变化 3.3.4 phonological component 音位部分 12.4.4 phonological environment 音系环境 2.4.2 phonological level 音系层 12.2.2 phonological opposition 音位对立 12.1.2 phonological process 音系过程 2.4.1 phonological representation 音位表达, 音系表达式 2.4.2 ; 12.4.4; 12.4.5 phonological rule 音系规则  2.4.1; 2.4.3; 12.4.5 phonological structure 音系结构 2; 3.2.4 ; 12.1.2 phonological system 音位系统 3.3.1 phonologist 音系学家 2.3.2 phonology 音系学 1.7.2;  2; 2.1.1; 2.3.2; 2.4.1; 2.4.3; 3.2.4;  6.2.2;  12.1.2; 12.2.3 phrasal verb 短语动词 3.1.3 phrase structure grammar 短语结构语法 12.4.3 phrase structure rule 短语结构规则 12.4.3 phrase 短语 2.3.2 ; 2.4.1; 2.5.2;  3.1.1; 12.4.2 Piaget, Jean 6 pidgin 洋泾浜语 7.2.3 Pike, Kenneth 12.3.3 Pinyin 拼音 2.5.4 place of articulation 发音部位 2.1.2 ; 2.2.1; 2.2.3; 2.3.3; 2.4.3 Plato 5 play剧本 9.5 plosion 爆破(破裂) 2.2.1 plosive 爆破音(破裂音) 2.2.1; 2.2.3 plural 复数 2.4.2 ; 3.2.1; 4.1.1 plural suffix 复数后缀 2.4.2 pluralism 多元主义 7.2.3 plurality 复数形式 3.2.4 poetic（function）诗学功能1.5;  9.3.1 poetry 诗歌9.3;  9.5.1 polysemous 多义的5.4 polysyllabic (word) 多音节(词) 2.5.1; 3.2.4 polysystemic analysis 多系统分析 12.2.2 pooh-pooh theory 感叹说1.4 Portugese 葡萄牙语3.3.2 positional encoding 位置编码 6.2.3 positional relation 位置关系 7.1.1 possessive 所有的;  属有的 12.2.3 possible grammar 可能的语法12.4.1 Postal  5.5.2 ;  12.5.1 postalveolar (sound) 齿龈后音 2.2.1; 2.2.3 post-Bloomfieldian linguistics 后布龙菲尔德语言学12.3.3 post-determiner 后位限定词3.1.3 postponed preposition 介词延后3.3.2 power and solidarity  权势与团结7.3.1 Prabhu 11.4.3 pragmatics 语用学1.5.3 ;   1.7.6;  8 Prague School 布拉格学派1.5;  12.1.1 pre-determiner 前位限定词3.1.3 predicate calculus 谓词演算5.5.2 predicate logic 谓词逻辑5.5.2 predicate 谓语 4.1;  4.2.2;  4.2.3; 4.3.1; 5.5.2;  12.5.1 predicator 谓语（动）词 4.5.2; 12.2.3 pre-editing 前期编辑 10.2.1 prefix 前缀 1.3.2 ;  3.2.1;  3.3.4 premodifier 前置修饰成分3.1.3 preposition compound 介词复合词3.2.3 preposition 介词3.1.3 ;  4.2.2 prepositional phrase 介词短语 4.2.3;  12.5.1 prescriptive 规定式1.9.1 ;  8.2.1 presupposition 前提;  预设 primary cardinal vowel 主要基本元音 2.2.2 primary stress 主重音 2.5.2 principle M  M-原理8.3.3 principle of informativeness 信息量原则8.3.3 principle of least effort 省力原则8.3.2 principle of quantity 数量原则8.3.3 privative opposition 否定对立12.1.2 pro-adjective 代形容词3.1.3 pro-adverb 代副词3.1.3 process verb 过程动词3.2.3 process 过程 6.1.2;   12.2.3 production error 产出性错误9.5.1 productivity 多产性7.1.4 ;  8.3.1 pro-form 代词形式3.1.3 ; 4.3.1 programming language 编程语言 10.2.1 progressive assimilation 顺同化 2.4.1 projection rule 投射规则 5.5.2 pro-locative 代处所词 3.1.3 pronoun 代词 3.1.3 ;  4.3.1;  4.3.2 pronoun 代词 4.3.1 proportional opposition 均衡对立 12.1.2 proposition 命题 5.3.2 ; 5.5.2 propositional calculus 命题演算 5.5.2 propositional logic 命题逻辑5.5.2 prosodic analysis 韵律分析1.2.2 prosodic analysis 韵律分析12.2.2 pro-verb 代动词3.1.3 psychological approach 心理学方法 6.1 psychology of language 语言心理学 6 psychology 心理学 6.1; 12.4.1 pulmonic sound 肺气流音 2.1.2 pure vowel 纯元音 2.2.2; 2.2.3 Putonghua 普通话 2.2.1 ; 2.3.2; 2.5.1; 2.5.4 Pyrrhic 抑抑格 9.3.3   Q quality maxim 质量准则 8.2.2 ;  8.3.2 quality 质量，音质 2.2.3 ; 3.1.3;  3.6.3;  8.2.2;  8.3.3;  10.2;  10.4.3;  12.1.2 quantifier (数)量词 3.1.3 ;  5.5.2 quantity maxim 数量准则8.2.2 ;  8.3.2 quatrain 四行诗9.3.4 Quirk 3.1.3 ;  10.3.2 Q-based implicature 基于Q原则的含义8.3.2 Q-Heuristic 数量探索法8.3.3 Q-principle 数量原则8.3.   R Radden & Kovecses 6.3.5 Radford, A. 2.4.3; 2.5.1 radical 舌根音 2.1.1 rank级阶 3.1.1;   12.2.3 rationalism 理性主义 12.4.7 R-based implicature 基于R原则的含义 8.3.2 r-colored (sound) 带r音 2.2.3 r-coloring 带r现象 2.2.3 realisation 体现 12.2.3 received pronunciation,  RP 标准发音 2.2.3; 2.5.2 recreational function 娱乐功能 1.5.6 recursive 可溯的;  还原的 12.4.3 recursiveness 递归性 1.3.2 ; 4.6 reference 所指 4.7.2;  5.1;  6.3.5; 8.2.3 referential meaning 所指意义 12.2.2 referential theory 指称论 5.1 reflected meaning 反射意义5.1 reflexive (form)反身形式12.4.4 reflexive rule  反身规则12.4.4 regional difference 地区差异 2.3.3; 2.5.2 register 语域 9.2.2 ;  9.5.1 regressive assimilation 逆同化 2.4.1 regulatory (function)控制性语言功能 1.5;   12.2.3 Reich 10.3.1 relation maxim 关系准则8.2.1 ;  8.3.2 relational opposite 关系对立5.3.2 relational process 关系过程12.2.3 relative clause 关系分/从句 4.2.4 relative pronoun 关系代词 3.3.2 relative uninterruptibility 相对连续性3.1.2 relevance maxim 关联准则 8.2.1 relevance theory 关联理论8.3.1 repetition 重复9.2;  9.3.2 representational system 表达系统12.3.3 representational 表达功能1.5 residue 剩余成分12.2.3 retroflex (sound) 卷舌音 2.2.1; 2.2.3 retroflexed 卷舌 2.2.1 reverse rhyme 反韵 9.3.2 revised extended standard theory, REST修正的扩展标准理论12.4;  12.4.5 rewriting rules 重写规则12.4.3 rheme述位12.2.3 rhetoric 修辞学9.1 rhotic 儿化 2.2.3 rhotic/r-colored vowel 儿化元音 2.2.1 rhoticity 儿化现象 2.2.3 rhyme 押韵 2.5.1 ;  9.3 rhythm 韵律;  节奏1.4;  1.5.6 ;  2.5.1;  9.3 Richard 5.1;  10.1.1 ; 11.4.1 Richards & Rodgers 11.1; 11.3 Richards 11.4.3 rime 韵基 2.5.1 ;  6.2.3 rise-fall pattern 升降模式 2.5.3 rising tone 升调 2.5.3 Roach 2.2.2;  2.5.2 Robinett, B. 2.5.3 Roca & Johnson 2.1.1;  2.2.3 Rodgers 11.4.1 Rogers 7.3.1 role角色12.3.3 roll 滚音 2.2.1 Roman alphabet  罗马字母 2.1.2 root morpheme 词根语素 3.2.2 root词根3.2,2 Rosch 7.3.1 Ross, J.R. 12.5.1 rounded 圆唇 2.2.2; 2.2.3 RP(received pronunciation) 标准发音  2.2.3; 2.5.2; 7.1.3 R-principle R原则8.3.2 rule ordering 规则序次 2.4.2 Rule-based approaches 基于规则的方法 10.2.4 Rumelhart & McClelland 6.2.2 Russian 1.7.3 ; 3.3.1   S salience 突显 6.3.1 sameness relation 相同关系 5.3 Sampson  7.1.2 Sanskrit 梵文3.1.2 ;  3.1.3; 4.4.3 Sapir, E. 7.1.1 ;   12.3.1 Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis 萨丕尔—沃尔夫假设7.1.1;  7.1.2;   12.3.1 Saussure索绪尔1.3;  1.6;  1.8;  1.9.3;  1.9.4;  4.1.1; 4.2;  4.2.1;  4.4.2;  12.0 scale of delicacy 精密阶12.2.3 scale schema 程度图式;  范围图式 6.3.3 schema 图式 6.3.1;  9.4.1 schwa中元音 2.2.2 Scottish English 苏格兰英语 2.2.1 Searle 1.5.3 Sears 1.3.2 Sechehaye, A. 12.0 second language acquisition 第二语言习得11.2 secondary cardinal vowel 次要基本元音 2.2.2 secondary stress 次重音 2.5.2 second-person narrator 第二人称叙述者 9.4.1 segment 音段 1.3.2;  2.1.2;  2.2 selection restriction 选择限制 5.5.2 selectional rules 选择规则12.4.4 self-reflexive 自反身1.5.7 Selinker 11.5.2 semantic change 语义变化3.3.3 semantic component 语义部分5.4;   12.4.4 semantic feature 语义特征3.2.4 ;  5.4 semantic interpretation 语义解释12.4.5 semantic interpretative rules 语义解释规则12.4.4 semantic process 语义过程12.5.2 semantic representation 语义表达12.4.4;  12.5.2 semantic sentence pattern, SSP 语义句型12.1.3 semantic triangle 语义三角 5.2 semantics 语义学1.7.5;  5;  8;  10.3.5;  12.2.1 sememe 义素3.2.4 semiotic system 符号系统1.5 semi-vowel 半元音 2.2.2 sense relation 意义关系 5.3 sense意义 3.1.1 ;  3.2.3;  5.3;   12.2.3 sentence 句子 1.3.2 ;  3.1.1;  3.1.2; 4; 5.5.2;  6.2.2; 12.1.3;  12.2;  12.4 sentence meaning 句义5.4;  5.5.2 ; 9.5.1;   12.4.5;  sentence pattern 句型11.4.3 sentence stress 句子重音 2.5.2 sentence structure 句子结构 12.2.3 sentence type 句型 4.5.2 sentential calculus 句子演算 5.5.2 sentential connection 句子连接 4.7 sequencing  排序 11.4.2 Shen 9.1 short 短(元音) 2.2.3 Short, Mick 9.4.1 sibilant 咝音 2.4.2 simile 明喻 9.2.2 simultaneity 同时性 12.2.3 singular 单数 4.2.1 situatedness 位置 6.3.1 situational level 情景层 12.2.2 situational syllabus 情景教学大纲 11.4.3 Skehan 11.2.3 ; 11.4.3 slot空缺12.3.3 smiley 表情图标10.4.5 Smith, H.L 12.3.3 social meaning 社会意义 5.1 social role 社会角色1.5.2 social semiotic 社会符号学1.2 society 社会7;  7.2 socio-cultural role 社会文化角色1.2 socio-cultural stylistics 社会文化文体学9.1 socio-historical stylistics 社会历史文体学9.1 sociolinguistic study of society 语言社会学7.2.3 sociolinguistic study 社会语言学7.2.3 sociolinguistics 社会语言学7;  12.2.3 sociological approach 社会学方法12.2.2 soft palate 软腭 2.1.1; 2.2.1; 2.3.1; 2.3.3 sonnet 十四行诗 9.3.4 ;  9.3.5;  9.3.6 sonorant 响音 2.4.3 sound pattern 语音模式 2;  9.3.5 sound segment 音段 2.1.2; 2.2; 2.2.2; 2.3.1; 2.4.1; 3.1 sound system 语音系统 1.1;  1.4;  1.5; 2; 1.7.2 sound unit 语音单位 2; 2.3.2 sound wave 音波 1.7.1 ;  2 sound语音 1.1;  1.2;  1.3; 2;  3.1.1;  3.2.4;  9.3 source domain 语源域 6.3.4 Spanish 西班牙语 2.2.1; 3.3.1;  3.3.4;  4.2.3 speaker’s meaning 说话者意义 8 SPEAKING 交际民族学模式 7.1.1 speech act theory 言语行为理论 8.1 speech community 言语社团3.3;  3.3.4 ;  7.1.1;  7.2.4;  12.4.1 speech event 言语事件1.5 speech function 言语功能12.2.3 speech mode 言语方式;  言语模态 1.7.6 speech perception 言语感知 2 speech presentation 言语表达 9.4.2 speech production 言语产生 2;  2.1.1 ; 6.4.1 speech research  言语研究 10.3.5 speech role 言语角色12.2.3 speech sound 语音1.7.2 ;  2 speech synthesis 言语合成 10 speech transmission 言语传递 2 speech 言语 1.1;  1.4;  1.6;  1.7.1 ;   2;  3.1.1;  6.2.2;  9.5.1;  11.2.3;  12.3.1;   12.4.1 speech/vocal organ 发音器官 2.1.1; 2.3.1 spelling 拼写, 拼法 2.4,3;   2.3.2;  4.3.1; 6.2.3 Spencer, A 2.3.2; 2.4 Spender 9.5.1 Sperber & Wilson 8.3.1 ; 8.3.2 Sperber, Dan  8.3 split infinitives 分佳节又重阳裂的不定式 3.3.2 ; 11.2.1 spoken corpus 口语语料库 10.3.5 spoken language translation 口语翻译 10.2.5 spoken language 口语 1.3.2 ; 6.4.2 spondee 扬扬格 9.3.3 spread 展喉 2.4.3 stability 稳定性 3.1.2 staging 分阶段 11.4.2 St am 7.1.1 standard theory 标准理论 4.3.2;  12.5 standardizaton 标准化 7.2.3 status 地位 9.5.2   stem词干 3.2.1 ; 7.1.1 Stern 11.4.1 Stewart 7.3.1 stimulus-response 刺激反应12.3.2 ;   12.4.3 Stockwell 9.6.1 stop 塞音 2.2.1; 2.2.3; 2.4.1; 2.4.3 stratification 层 1.3.2 stratificational grammar 层次语法12.3.3 stream of consciousness 意识流9.4.2 stress 重音 2.1.2; 2.5; 2.5.2;  9.3.3 stress pattern 重音模式 2.5.2 stressed syllable 重读音节，重音节 2.2.1; 2.5.2;  9.3.3;  9.3.5 stricture 制流 2.2; 2.2.1 structural (structuralist) grammar 结构语法 11.2.2 ;   12.3.3;   12.4.2;  12.4.7 structural analysis 结构分析 12.2.2 ; 12.3.3;   12.4.3 structural metaphor 结构隐喻 6.3.4 structural syllabus 结构教学大纲 11.4.3 structural view of language 结构语言观 11.4.1 structural word 虚词 2.5.2 structuralism 结构主义 12.3.3 structure 结构 1.3.2 ;  1.5.1;  1.6;  1.7.4;  4.2.2;  6.1.2;  12.3.3 style文体 1.1;  7.2.2 ;  9 stylistic analysis 文体分析9.5.1;  9.6.2 stylistics 文体学9.1;  9.5;  12.2.3 subject 主语 4.1;  4.3.1;  8.1.1;  12.5.1 subject-predicate type 主谓型 4.2.1 subjunctive mood 虚拟语气 5.5.2 subordinate clause 从属小句 4.2.4.2; 4.6.2 subordinate level  下属层次（范畴） 6.3.2 subordination 从属 4.2.4 substitutability 可替代性 4.1.2; 4.2.3 substitution 替换 2.3.2;  4.7.2 suffix 后缀 1.3.2 ;  2.2.1 ; 2.4.2;  3.2.1;  7.1.4 superlative degree 最高级 5.3.2 superordinate level 上位层次（范畴） 6.3.2 superordinate 上下词 5.3.3 ;  6.3.1                                                           suprasegmental feature 超音段特征 2.5 suprasegmental 超音段 2.1.2; 2.5.1 surface form 表层形式 2.4.2 surface representation 表层表达式 2.4.2 surface representation 表层表达式 2.4.2 surface structure 表层结构 11.3.2 ;  12.4;  12.5.1 Svartvik, Jan 10.3.2 SVO主谓宾 4.1.1;  4.2.1;  9.2.1 Swain 11.2.3 syllabic structure 音节结构 2.5.1;  3.2.4 syllabification 成音节 2.3.1 syllable 音节1.3.2;  2.1.2 ; 2.4.1; 2.5; 2.5.1; 2.5.2;  3.3.4; 9.3.3 syllabus design 教学大纲设计11.4 syllabus 教学大纲11.3.3 ; 11.4 syllogism 三段论法5.5.2 symbol  语符 2.1.2;  2.2.2;  2.2.3;  6.3.5;  12.3.1;  12.4.3 synchronic (linguistics)共时（语言学）1.9.2 ;  8.3.2;  9.2.2;  12.0;  12.3 synecdoche 提喻9.2.2 synonym 同义词8.3.2 synonymous 同义的5.4;  8.3.3 synonymy 同义关系5.3.1 ; 8.3.2 syntactic component 句法部分12.4.4 syntactic features 句法特征12.4.5 syntactic function 句法功能 4.3; 12.5.1 syntactic marker 句法标记5.5.1 syntactic process 句法过程6.2.3;   12.5.1 syntactic relation  句法关系 7.1 syntactic structure 句法结构 6.2.3;  10.3.5 syntactical change 句法变化 3.3.2 syntagmatic relation 组合关系 4.1.1;  12.0; 12.1.2;  12.2.2;   12.2.3 syntax 句法1.3.1;  1.7.4;  4;  4.2.1;  12.5.1 system network 系统网络12.2.3 system of signs 符号系统12 system of systems 系统的系统12.2.3 system 系统1.3.1 ;  12.2.3 systemic (grammar)系统语法12.2;  12.2.3 systemic functional linguist  系统功能语言学家7.1.1 ; 1.3.1 systemic-functional Grammar, SFG系统功能语法12.2.3   T tag question 反意问句 4.3.1 tagmeme 法位 12.3.3 tagmemics 法位学 12.3.3 Talmy 6.1; 6.3.1 tap 触音 2.2.1 target domain 目标域 6.3.4 target language 目标语言 10.2.2 ;  11.2.2; 11.2.3 target segment 目标音段 2.4.1 task-based language teaching  任务型语言教学 11.3.1 ;  11.4.3 tautology 同义反复;  冗辞 8.2.2 Taylor 7.2.1 template 模块 10.1.3 tense 紧(元音) 2.2.3 tense时态 4.3.1;  4.4;  8.1.1;   12.2.3;   12.4.3 tenseness 紧度 2.2.3 tetrameter 四音步诗行 3.3 text encoding 语篇编码 10.3.4 text interpretation 语篇解释 6.3 text linguistics 语篇语言学,篇章语言学 4.7 text style 语篇风格 9.4.3 textual function 语篇功能 12.2.3 textual organization 语篇组织 9.4.4 text语篇 4.4.2;  6.2.2;  9.2.3;  9.4.3;  9.5.1;  10.2;  12.2.2 thematic meaning 主位意义5.1 thematic role 题元角色12.5.1 theme主位12.1.3; 12.2.3 theoretical linguistics 理论语言学10.3.5 third-person narrator 第三人称叙述者9.4.1 Thomas and Shan 1.3 Thomas, Linda 1.3.3 Thornborrow and Wareing 9.3.1;  9.3.5 thought presentation 思想表达9.4.2 thought 思想 6.2; 6.3.5; 12.3.1 three-place predicate 三元谓词 5.5.2 throat 咽喉 2.1.1 Tomlinson 11.2.2 tone contour 声调曲拱 2.5.4 tone language 声调语言 2.5.4 tone number 调值 2.5.4 tone symbol 声调符号 2.5.4 tone 声调 2.1.2; 2.5; 2.5.3; 2.5.4 tongue 舌 2.1.1; 2.2.1; 2.2.2 tongue back 舌后 2.1.1; 2.2.1 tongue blade 舌叶 2.1.1; 2.2.1 tongue body 舌体 2.2.1 tongue front 舌前 2.1.1 tongue height 舌高 2.2.2;  2.5.1 tongue position 舌位 2.2.2; 2.3.2 tongue root 舌根 2.1.1; 2.2.1; 2.4.3 tongue tip 舌尖 2.1.1; 2.2.1; 2.2.3 trachea 气管 2.1.1 traditional grammar 传统语法3.1.2; 3.1.3;  12.2.3; 12.3 Trager, G 12.3.3 trajectory 轨迹9.6.1 transcription 转写标音 2.1.2;  2.2.3;  2.3.1;  10.3.1 transfer approach 转移法 10.2.2 transformation of interrogation 疑问转换12.4.3 transformation 转换 4.3.1;   12.4.3 transformational component 转换部分 12.4.5 transformational grammar 转换语法12.3.3; 12.4.3 transformational process 转换过程12.4.3;  12.4.5 transformational rule 转换规则11.3.1; 12.4; 12.5.1 transformational-generative grammar, TG grammar 转换生成语法4.2.2;  4.3;   11.2.3;  11.3.2;  12.4 transformation-generative model 转换生成模式 6.2 transitivity 及物性 12.2.3 translation 翻译10.2;   10.3 tree diagram 树形图 4.2.2;  12.4.3 trill 颤音 2.2.1 trimeter 三音步 9.3.3 triphthong 三合元音 2.2.2 trochee 扬抑格 9.3.3 trope转喻;  隐喻 9.2.2 Trubetzkoy , N.S.   12.1.2 Trudgill 7.2.4 truth condition 真值条件5.5.2 truth value 真值5.5.2 turn length 话轮长度9.5.2 turn quantity 话轮数量9.5.2 turn-taking 依次发言9.4.4 turn话轮9.5.2 two-place connective 二元连词5.5.2 two-place predicate 二元谓词5.5.2 typology 类型学12.3.1   U unaspirated 不送气 2.3.3; 2.4.3 unaspirated sound 不送气音 2.3.1; 2.3.2 underlying form 底层形式 2.4.2; 2.4.3 underlying representaton 底层表达式 2.4.2 uninterruptibility 连续性 3.1.2 universal grammar（UG）普遍语法11.2;  11.3;  12.4 universal quantifier 全称量词5.5.2 universal 普遍现象 5.5.2;   12.4.1 universality 普遍性12.3.3 universals of language 语言的普遍现象12.3.1 unmarked 无标记 2.4.3; 5.3.2;  8.3.2; 8.3.3 unrounded 展唇 2.2.2; 2.2.3 unstressed syllable 非重音节 2.5.2 upper lip 上唇 2.1.1 upper teeth 上齿 2.1.1 ; 2.2.1 urban dialectology 都市方言学 7.2.2 user用户10.2.4 utterance 语段 2.5.3 utterance meaning 语句意义 8;  9.5.1 utterance 语句3.1.2;  6.2.3;  8;  9.3.3;  12.0;  12.1.3;  12.2 uvula 小舌 2.1.1; 2.2.1 uvular (sound) 小舌音 2.2.1 uvular fricative 小舌擦音 2.2.1   V variable word 可变化词 3.1.3 variant 变体 2.4.2 variation 变异 7.2.2 ;   12.3.2 variety 变体;  语体 1.8 velar (sound) 软腭音 2.2.1; 2.2.3 velar nasal 软腭鼻音 2.2.1 velarization 软腭化 2.3.1; 2.3.3; 2.4.1 velum 软腭 2.1.1 ; 2.2.1; 2.3.1; 2.3.3 verb compound  动词复合词 3.2.3 verb phrase 动词短语 4.1.3 verbal communication 言语交际 1.2;   1.5.4 verbal process 言语过程 12.2.3 verbiage 言辞 12.2.3 verb动词 3;  4;  8.1.1 ;  12.3.3;  12.5.1;  12.4;  12.4.5 vertical relation 选择关系 4.1.2; 4.2.1 verticality schema 上下图式 6.3.3 violation of maxims  准则的违背 8.2.1 vocabulary 词汇 3.1.1 vocal cavity 声腔 2.1.1 vocal folds/cords/bands 声带 2.1.1 ; 2.2.1 vocal organ 发音器官 2.1 vocal tract 声道 2.1.1; 2.1.2; 2.2.1 vocative 呼格 4.1.1 voiced consonant 带声辅音，浊辅音 2.1.1; 2.2.3; 2.4.2 voiced sound 带声音，浊音 2.1.1; 2.2.3; 2.4.1; 2.4.3 voiced 带声 2.4.3 voiceless consonant 不带声辅音，清音2.2.3; 2.4.2; 2.4.3 voiceless sound 不带声音，清音 2.1.1; 2.2.3; 2.4.1 voiceless 不带声 2.3.1 voice语态 8.1.1 ;  12.2.3 voicing 带声性 2.2.3; 2.3.2; 2.4.1 vowel chart 元音图 2.2.2 vowel glide 滑元音 2.2.2 vowel nucleus  元音核心 6.2.2; 6.2.3 vowel 元音 2.1.2; 2.2; 2.2.2; 2.2.3; 2.3.1; 2.3.2; 2.3.3; 2.4.1; 2.4.2; 2.4.3; 2.5.1;  3.2.4   W Wang, Lin 12.2.3 web page 网页 10.2.4 Webster’s New World Dictionary 韦氏新世界词典 1.2 Wells, John 2.2.3 wetblog 网络博客 10.4.3 Whitney, W. D. 12.0 Whorf, Benjamin Lee 1.9.3 ;  7.1.1;  12.3.1 Widdowson 1.3 Willis 11.4.3 Wilson, Deirdre 8.3.1 women register 女性语言7.2.2 word词1.3.1;  1.7.3;  2.3.1 ; 2.3.2; 2.4.1; 2.5.1; 2.5.2; 2.5.3; 2.5.4; 3.1; 4.1; 6.2.3 word class 词类 1.7.4 ;  3.1.3;  3.2.3;  5.5.2;  9.2.2 word formation 词语形成1.7.3 word group 词组3.1.1 ;  3,3;  4.2.2; 4.5 word meaning 词义5.4 word order 词序1.7.3 ; 4.1.1; 4.3.1 word recognition 词语识别 6.2 wording 措辞 12.2.3 word-for-word 逐字翻译10.2.1 writing 文字1.1;  1.2;  6.2.3 written language 书面语 6.4.2 written text 篇章 10.3.1   X Xin Ran 7.3.1 X-bar Theory  X-杠理论 12.4.6   Y Yalden, Janice 11.4.3 Yang  7.1.1 ;  7.2; 7.2.3 Yo-he-ho theory 嗨唷说，吭唷说，劳动喊声说 1.4   Z zero derivation 零派生 3.3.3 zero form 零形式 3.2.4 Zipf, George Kingsley 8.3.2